Материаловедение = Materials Science

Допущено Министерством образования Республики Беларусь
в качестве учебного пособия для иностранных студентов 
учреждений высшего образования по специальностям
«Конструирование и производство изделий
из композиционных материалов»,
«Машины и оборудование лесного комплекса»,
«Полиграфическое оборудование 
и системы обработки информации»,
«Машины и аппараты химических производств
и предприятий строительных материалов»,
«Технология деревообрабатывающих производств»,
«Химическая технология органических веществ, 
материалов и изделий»,
«Автоматизация технологических процессов и производств»

Materials Science

Минск
«Вышэйшая  школа»
2019

Под редакцией 
Заслуженного деятеля науки Республики Беларусь,
доктора технических наук,
профессора Н.А. Свидуновича

атериаловедение

УДК [620.22+669.017](075.8)-054.6
ББК 30.3я75
 
М34

А в т о р ы: И.В. Войтов, И.М. Жарский, В.И. Волосатиков, Н.А. Свидунович, М. Мюрек, 
Д.В. Куис

Р е ц е н з е н т ы: кафедра «Материаловедение в машиностроении» Белорусского национального 
технического университета (заведующий кафедрой доктор технических наук, 
профессор В.М. Константинов); доцент кафедры перевода и межкультурной коммуникации 
УО «Гродненский государственый университет имени Янки Купалы» кандидат филологических 
наук, доцент Л.М. Середа

Материаловедение = Materials Science : учебное пособие / 
И. В. Войтов [и др.] ; под ред. Н. А. Свидуновича. – Минск : 
Вышэйшая школа, 2019. – 223 с. : ил.
ISBN 978-985-06-3078-0.

Учебное пособие содержит 9 глав по дисциплине «Материаловедение» 
и 2 приложения. Приведена классификация материалов, их структура, фазовые 
превращения, термическая обработка. Описаны механические свойства 
материалов и виды разрушений. Даны характеристики черных и цветных металлов 
с описанием их свойств. Приведены подходы к выбору материалов и рассмотрены 
экономические аспекты. Приложения включают в себя примеры аналогов марок 
черных и цветных металлов, а также список терминов.
Для иностранных студентов учреждений высшего образования по ин же нер-
ным спе ци аль ностям.

УДК [620.22+669.017](075.8)-054.6
ББК 30.3я75

Все права на данное издание защищены. Воспроизведение всей книги или любой ее части не 
может быть осуществлено без разрешения издательства.

ISBN 978-985-06-3078-0 
© Оформление. УП «Издательство
 
 
“Вышэйшая школа”», 2019

М34

CONTENTS

PREFACE   5

1. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS 
SCIENCE   6

1.1  Historical perspective   6
1.2  Materials Science and Engineering   7
1.3  Why study Materials Science 
and Engineering?   9
1.4  Classification of materials   9
1.5  Advanced materials   14
1.6  Modern materials’ needs   16

2. THE STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS   18

2.1  Crystal structures   18
2.2  Crystal locations, planes,
and directions   27
2.3  X-ray diffraction   29
2.4  The crystals defects   30

3. PHASE DIAGRAMS AND PHASE 
TRANSFORMATIONS   40

3.1  Introduction   40
3.2  Alloy systems   42
3.3  Phase diagrams   43
3.4  The phase rule or Gibbs   43
3.5  Cooling curves (time-temperature 
curves)   45
3.6  Construction of a phase diagram 
or constitutional diagram   47
3.7  The lever rule   49
3.8  Equilibrium diagrams for binary alloys 
forming eutectic   50
3.9  Application of phase transformations   53
3.10  Micro-constituents of Fe–C system   56
3.11  Iron–carbon system   58

3.12  Modified iron–carbon phase 
diagram   60

4. HEAT TREATMENT   66

4.1  Introduction   66
4.2  Theory of treatments   67
4.3  Annealing   74
4.4  Annealing operations   75
4.5  Normalizing   76
4.6  Hardening   77
4.7  Tempering   82
4.8  Mass effect   84
4.9  Principal equipment for heat 
treatment   85
4.10  Major defects in metals or alloys due 
to faulty heat treatment   87
4.11  Surface finish after heat treatment   88

5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS   90

5.1  Introduction   90
5.2  Concept of stress and strain   91
5.3  Elastic deformation   95
5.3.1  Stress-strain behavior   95
5.3.2  Anelasticity   98
5.3.3  Elastic properties of materials   98
5.4  Plastic deformation   99
5.4.1  Tensile properties   100
5.4.2  True stress and strain   105
5.4.3  Elastic recovery after plastic 
deformation   107
5.4.4  Compressive, shear, and torsional 
deformation   107
5.4.5  Hardness   108
5.5  Property variability and design/safety 
factors   113
5.5.1  Variability of material 
properties   113
5.5.2  Design/safety factors   114

6. FAILURE   116

6.1  Introduction   116
6.2  Fracture   116
6.2.1  Fundamentals of fracture   116
6.2.2  Ductile fracture   117
6.2.3  Brittle fracture   119
6.3.4  Principles of fracture 
mechanics   121
6.2.5  Impact fracture testing   126
6.3  Fatigue   130
6.3.1  Cyclic stresses   131
6.3.2  The S–N curve   132
6.3.3  Crack initiation and 
propagation   134
6.3.4  Factors that affect fatigue life   136
6.3.5  Environment effects   138
6.4  Creep   139
6.4.1  Generalized creep behavior   139
6.4.2  Stress and temperature 
effects   140
6.4.3  Data extrapolation methods   142
6.4.4  Alloys for high-temperature 
use   143

7. APPLICATIONS OF METAL ALLOYS   144

7.1  Introduction   144
7.2  Types of metal alloys   144
7.2.1  Ferrous alloys   144
7.2.2  Nonferrous alloys   157

8. MATERIALS SELECTION AND DESIGN 
CONSIDERATIONS   168

8.1  Introduction   168

8.2  Materials selection for a torsionally 
stressed cylindrical shaft   168
8.2.1  Strength considerations – 
torsionally stressed shaft   169
8.2.2  Other property considerations 
and the final  decision   174
8.2.3  Mechanics of spring 
deformation   174
8.2.4  Valve spring design and material 
requirements   176
8.2.5  One commonly employed steel 
alloy   178
8.3  Failure of an automobile rear axle   180
8.3.1  Introduction   180
8.3.2  Testing procedure and results   181
8.3.3  Discussion   185

9. ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, 
AND SOCIETAL ISSUES IN MATERIALS 
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING   186

9.1  Introduction   186
9.2  Economic considerations   186
9.2.1  Component design   187
9.2.2  Materials   187
9.2.3  Manufacturing techniques   187
9.3  Environmental and societal 
considerations   188
9.3.1  Recycling issues in materials 
science and engineering   190

APPENDIX A  Examples of analogous grades 
of ferrous and nonferrous metals   194
APPENDIX B  Glossary   197

LITERATURE USED   220

PREFACE

Materials Science is the science of nature, proper-
ties and behavior of materials based on metals, 
nonmetallic components of oxide systems, non-
oxide and metal-nonmetal compounds, as well 
as the laws of processes for their preparation, 
structure formation, compounding and destruc-
tion. Materials Science is the science that 
establishes the principles of “design” and the cre-
ation of new materials, development of technology 
and the establishment of their application areas.
Modern machinery is characterized by con-
tinuously increasing power density and hard 
conditions of machines usage (high vacuum, low 
or high temperatures, aggressive media, high 
radiation, etc.). Considering such conditions of 
machines usage, the materials have to correspond 
to specific requirements, to meet them many 
alloys based on various metals have been created.
Based on these facts and the tasks in the 
Republic of Belarus to those students who obtain 
the university education, all the students of 
technical specialties should have theoretical 
concepts of defects in real crystals, theoretical and 
real strength of materials, properties, destruction 
and choice of materials.

INTRODUCTION 
TO MATERIALS 
SCIENCE

1.1  HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us 
realize. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and 
food production, virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced 
to one degree or another by materials. Historically, the development and 
advancement of societies have been intimately tied to the members’ ability 
to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. In fact, early civili-
zations have been designated by the level of their  materials development 
(the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age).
The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number 
of materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. 
With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had 
properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included 
pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the 
properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the 
addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally 
a selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set 
of materials – the one best suited for an application by virtue of its charac-
teristics. It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came 
to understand the relationships  between the structural elements of materials 
and their properties. This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 
100 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the character-
istics of materials. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved 
with rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our modern 
and complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers.
The development of many technologies that make our existence 
so comfortable has been intimately associated with the accessibility 
of suitable materials. An advancement in the understanding of a material 
type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For 
example, automobiles would not have been possible without the availability 
of inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute. In our contempo-
rary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made 
from what are called semiconducting materials.

1

1.2  MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of Materials Science and Engineer-
ing into Materials Science and Materials Engineering subdisciplines. Strictly speaking, 
“materials science” involves investigating the relationships that exist between the 
structures and properties of materials. In contrast, “materials engineering” is, on the 
basis of these structure-property correlations, designing or engineering the structure 
of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties. From a functional per-
spective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, 
whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using 
existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing materials. Most 
graduates in materials programs are trained to be both materials scientists and 
materials engineers.
“Structure” is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. 
In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal 
components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and 
interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organi-
zation of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, 
which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, 
is termed “microscopic”, meaning that which is subject to direct observation using 
some type of a microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the 
naked eye are termed “macroscopic”.
The notion of “property” deserves explication. While in service use, all materials 
are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, 
a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal 
surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and 
magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions 
of properties are made independent of material shape and size.
Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six 
different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deterio-
rative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different 
responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; 
examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such 
as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The 
thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal 
conductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the ap-
plication of a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic 
or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical 
properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity 
of materials. The chapters that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these 
six classifications.
In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are 
involved in the science and engineering of materials, namely, “processing” and “per-
formance”. With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure 
of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s perfor-

mance will be a function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between 
processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in the schematic 
illustration shown in Fig. 1.1.

Throughout this text we draw attention to the relationships among these four 
components in terms of the design, production, and utilization of materials.
We now present an example of these processing-structure-properties-perfor-
mance principles with Fig. 1.2, a photograph showing three thin disk specimens 
placed over some printed matter. It is 
obvious that the optical properties (i.e. 
the light transmittance) of each of the 
three materials are different; the one 
on the left is transparent (i.e. virtually all 
of the reflected light passes through it), 
whereas the disks in the center and on the 
right are, respectively, translucent and 
opaque. All of these specimens are of the 
same material, aluminum oxide, but the 
leftmost one is what we call a single 
crystal, i.e. it is highly perfect which gives 
rise to its transparency. The center one is 
composed of numerous and very small 
single crystals that are all connected; the 
boundaries between these small crystals 
scatter a portion of the light reflected 
from the printed page, which makes this 
material optically translucent. Finally, 
the specimen on the right is composed 
not only of many small, interconnected 
crystals, but also of a large number of very 
small pores or void spaces. These pores 
also effectively scatter the reflected light 
and render this material opaque.
Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal 
boundaries and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Further-
more, each material was produced using a different processing technique. And, 
of course, if optical transmittance is an important parameter relative to the ultimate 
in-service application, the performance of each material will be different.

Figure 1.2  Photograph of three thin disk specimens 
of aluminum oxide, which have been placed over 
a printed page in order to demonstrate their differ-
ences in light-transmittance characteristics. The 
disk on the left is transparent (that is, virtually all 
light that is reflected from the page passes through 
it), whereas the one in the center is translucent 
(meaning that some of this reflected light is trans-
mitted through the disk). And, the disk on the right 
is opaque, i.e. none of the light passes through it. 
These differences in optical properties are a conse-
quence of differences in structure of these materials, 
which have resulted from the way the materials were 
processed

Figure 1.1  The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their inter-
relationships

Processing
Structure
Properties
Performance

1.3  WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE 
AND ENGINEERING?

Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether 
mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a 
design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the 
superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. 
Of course, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved 
in the investigation and design of materials.
Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the 
many thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final 
decision is normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be character-
ized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare 
occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. 
Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristics for another. The classic 
example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength 
will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two 
or more properties may be necessary.
A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that 
may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions 
in mechanical strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive 
environments.
Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the 
finished product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but 
is prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a 
finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the 
desired shape.
The more familiar an engineer or a scientist is with the various characteristics and 
structure-property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the 
more proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials choices 
based on these criteria.

1.4  CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: 
 metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup 
and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, 
 although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are the composites, com-
binations of two or more of the above three basic material classes. A brief explanation 
of these material types and representative characteristics is offered next. Another clas-
sification is advanced materials – those used in high-technology applications viz. 
semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nanoengineered materials.
Metals. Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements 
(such as iron, aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonme-
tallic elements (e.g. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. Atoms 

in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner, and in comparison 
to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense (Fig. 1.3).
With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff 
(Fig. 1.4) and strong (Fig. 1.5), yet are ductile (i.e. capable of large amounts of de-
formation without fracture), and are resistant to fracture (Fig. 1.6), which accounts 
for their widespread use in structural applications. Metallic materials have large 

Figure 1.4  Bar-chart of room-temperature stiffness (i.e. elastic modulus) values for various metals, ceramics, 
polymers, and composite materials

Metals
Ceramics

Polymers

Composites
Tungsten
Iron/Steel
Titanium
Aluminium
Magnesium

Si  N
3     4
Al  O
2     3
SiC

Glass
Concrete

ZrO 2

PVC
PS, Nylon

PTFE
PE

Rubbers

CFRC

GFRC

Woods

1000

100

10

1.0

0.1

0.01

0.001

Stiffness [Elastic (or Young’s) Modulus (in units of
gigapascals)] (logarithmic scale)

Metals

Ceramics

Polymers
Composites

Platinum

Titanium

Aluminium

Magnesium

Silver
Copper
Iron/Steel
ZrO2

SiC  Si  N
3     4
Al  O
2    3

Glass
Concrete
PTFE
PVC
PS
PE
Rubber

GFRC
CFRC

Woods

40

20

108
6
4

2

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4

0.2

0.1

Density (g/cm  )  (logarithmic scale)
3

Figure 1.3  Bar-chart of room-temperature density values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and com-
posite materials

numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular 
atoms. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. For 
example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity (Fig. 1.7) and heat, and 
are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. 
In addition, some of the metals (viz. Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic 
properties.

Figure 1.5  Bar-chart of room-temperature strength (i.e. tensile strength) values for various metals, ceramics, 
polymers, and composite materials

Metals

Ceramics

Polymers

Composites

Steel
alloys

Aluminium
alloys
Gold

Glass

Si  N
3     4

Al  O
2    3
SiC
Cu, Ti
alloys

Nylon

PS

PE

PVC

PTFE

CFRC
GFRC

Woods

1000

100

10

Strength (Tensile Strength, in units of
megapascals) (logarithmic scale)

Metals

Ceramics
Polymers

Composites
Steel
alloys
Titanuum
alloys
Aluminium
alloys

Si  N
3    4
Al  O
SiC
2    3

Glass

Concrete

Nylon
Polystyrene
Polythylene

Polyester

CFRCGFRC

Wood

Resistance to Fracture (Fracture Toughness,
in units of MPa m) (logarithmic scale)

100

10

1.0

0.1

Figure 1.6  Bar-chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e. fracture toughness) for various metals, 
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials

Fig. 1.8 is a photograph that shows several common and familiar objects that are 
made of metallic materials.
Ceramics. Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; 
they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the 
common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon 
dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, 
what some refer to as the traditional ceramics, those composed of clay minerals (i.e. 
porcelain), as well as cement, and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic 

Metals

Ceramics
Polymers

Semiconductors

Electrical Conductivity (in units of reciprocal
ohm-meters) (logarithmic scale)

108

104

10-4

10-8

10-12

10-16

10-20

1

Figure 1.7  Bar-chart of room-temperature electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics, polymers, 
and semiconducting materials

Figure 1.8  Familiar objects that are made of metals and metal alloys: 
(from left to right) silverware (a fork and knife), scissors, coins, a gear, 
a wedding ring, and a nut and bolt