Гомеостаз и питание человека = Homeostasis and human nutrition

Екатеринбург
Издательство Уральского университета
2021

МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

УРАЛЬСКИЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ИМЕНИ ПЕРВОГО ПРЕЗИДЕНТА РОССИИ Б. Н. ЕЛЬЦИНА

И. С. Селезнева, Т. В. Глухарева

ГОМЕОСТАЗ
И ПИТАНИЕ ЧЕЛОВЕКА

HOMEOSTASIS
AND HUMAN NUTRITION

Учебное пособие

Рекомендовано методическим советом
Уральского федерального университета
в качестве учебного пособия для студентов вуза, обучающихся
по направлению подготовки 19.04.01 «Биотехнология»

УДК 574.3:612.39(075.8)
ББК 28.701.25я73-1
         С29

Учебное пособие составлено в соответствии с действующим Государственным образовательным 
стандартом высшего профессионального образования и магистерской программой
по направлению «Биотехнология». В краткой форме в учебном пособии изложены основные
сведения о строении и свойствах химических веществ продуктов питания, приведены особенности 
их превращений в организме человека и указаны важнейшие пищевые источники. Рассмотрены 
принципы здорового и качественного питания и вопросы, связанные с решением проблемы
обеспечения людей биологически полноценным питанием для поддержания гомеостаза.
Предназначено студентам вуза, осваивающим дисциплину «Физиология питания», для под-
готовки к занятиям и сдачи итогового теста.

Educational medium is a textbook on «Nutrition Physiology» discipline, compiled in accordance
with the existing State educational standard of higher education and master’s curriculum for the direction
«Biotechnology». Structure fundamentals, properties of chemical food components, their transformations
and food sources are stated in a short and laconic form. Issues, connected with the requirements to high
quality nutrition in solving a problem of providing people with biologically adequate food and keeping
homeostasis, are considered.
Systematic material stating, disclosing main notions and principal scientific points of the course,
allows using this medium to prepare for classes and for passing end-of-term test in the discipline.

Селезнева, И. С.
Гомеостаз и питание человека = Homeostasis and human nutrition : учеб. посо-
бие / И. С. Селезнева, Т. В. Глухарева ; М-во науки и высш. образования Рос.
Федерации, Урал. федер. ун-т. – Екатеринбург : Изд-во Урал. ун-та, 2021. – 116 с. :
ил. – Загл. парал. рус., англ. – Текст англ. – Библиогр.: с. 111–113. – 30 экз. –
ISBN 978-5-7996-3314-1. – Текст : непосредственный.
ISBN 978-5-7996-3314-1

С29

ISBN 978-5-7996-3314-1

Р е ц е н з е н т ы:
Г. Л. Русинов, кандидат химических наук,
ведущий сотрудник лаборатории гетероциклических соединений
Института органического синтеза УрО РАН;
Д. Н. Кожевников, доктор химических наук, вице-президент по НИР
(Научно-производственный холдинг «ВМП»);
Н. В. Лукманова, старший преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков
и образовательных технологий (Уральский федеральный университет)

П о д  о б щ е й  р е д а к ц и е й
М. А. Миронова

УДК 574.3:612.39(075.8)
ББК 28.701.25я73-1

© Уральский федеральный университет, 2021

CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 5
1.1. «Homeostasis and human nutrition» discipline aims .............................. 5
1.2. The place of discipline in module structure
and in the main educational program ................................................... 5
1.3. Laboriousness of discipline mastering ................................................. 6
1.4. Brief discipline description ................................................................. 6
1.5. Discipline content ............................................................................. 6
1.6. What is nutrition physiology? ............................................................. 8

2. NUTRITION AS A PART OF HEALTHY WAY OF LIFE FORMATION ............. 9
2.1. What means nutrition? ....................................................................... 9
2.2. What does the motion give? .............................................................. 10
2.3. Factors determining the lifespan of a modern person ........................... 11

3. THEORETICAL BASES OF HOMEOSTASIS AND NUTRITION.
GENERAL NOTIONS ABOUT PHYSIOLOGY
AND BIOCHEMISTRY OF NUTRITION ........................................................ 13
3.1. Definition of the «Homeostasis» concept ............................................. 13
3.2. Homeostasis regulation ...................................................................... 15
3.3. Characteristics of digestion and digestive system ................................. 17
3.4. Schemes of macronutrients digestion processes ................................... 20
3.5. Regulatory mechanisms of digestion ................................................... 34
3.6. Gastrointestinal tract micro flora ........................................................ 35

4. CONCEPT OF QUALITY, NUTRITIONAL, BIOLOGICAL
AND ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD PRODUCTS .............................................. 38
4.1. Nutritional value of proteins.
Protein-calorie deficiency and its consequences .................................... 38
4.1.1. Main characteristics of proteins nutritional value ....................... 39
4.1.2. Biological value ....................................................................... 41
4.2. Nutritional value of fats and oils ........................................................ 43
4.3. Nutritional value of carbohydrates ..................................................... 45
4.4. Caloric value of daily ration ............................................................... 46

5. MEDICAL-BIOLOGICAL VALUE AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE MAIN FOOD COMPONENTS ......................................................... 49
5.1. Main chemical components of food (nutrients) .................................... 49
5.2. Metabolism ..................................................................................... 51
5.3. Proteins ........................................................................................... 55
5.4. Carbohydrates .................................................................................. 57

5.5. Lipids and fats ................................................................................ 63
5.6. Vitamins ........................................................................................... 66

6. MODERN NOTIONS ABOUT RATIONAL NUTRITION .............................. 70
6.1. Fundamentals of rational nutrition ....................................................... 70
6.2. Some physiological requirements to nutrition ...................................... 71

7. PRODUCTS CREATION PRINCIPLE
FOR ALIMENTARY CORRECTION OF HOMEOSTASIS DISORDER ............... 74
7.1. General principles of making up clinical
and prophylactic nutrition rations ........................................................ 74
7.2. Food additives .................................................................................. 75
7.3. Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics .................................................. 76

8. METHODOLOGY INSTRAKTIONS FOR PRACTICAL STUDIES ................. 78
8.1. Practical study 1. Digestion, metabolism and energy exchange ............. 78
8.2. Practical study 2. Energy value of dishes. Modelling the process
of human energy expenses compensation ............................................. 83
8.3. Practical study 3. Making up a map of food
and energy value of nutrients ............................................................. 85
8.4. Practical study 4, 5. Calculating and making up human’s daily ration
for prophylactic, clinical and special nutrition.
Calculating and making up human’s daily ration for certain age
and professional population groups ................................................... 89
8.5. Practical study 6. Nutritive value of raw materials.
Technological processing influence on nutritive value of ready product .... 91

9. KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT TESTS
ON THE «NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY» DISCIPLINE .................................... 92

10. LABORATORY OPERATIONS MANUAL ................................................... 96
10.1. Identifying food components impact on neurohumoral system ............ 97
10.2. Gastrointestinal system influence on the degree of protein digestion .... 99
10.3. Enzymatic hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates ............................... 100
10.4. Chemistry of milk .......................................................................... 102
10.5. Comparative analysis of food products ............................................ 104

STUDENT INDEPENDENT WORK ............................................................... 108

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES ................................................................... 111

LITERATURE .............................................................................................. 114

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. «Homeostasis and human nutrition»
discipline aims

Process of studying this discipline is aimed to get the following results
of education:
– RE 6 – to organize and to implement educational process using modern
information, educational and multimedia technologies;
– RE 7 – to organize independent and collective scientific research for solving
fundamental, technological and project tasks.

To know
K.3.4. The knowledge of biochemistry and human physiology, as well as
physiology of microorganisms and other biological objects.
K.3.10. The knowledge of the composition and main functions of basic classes
of biologically active compounds.

To be able to
A.2.2. To be able to process information, to carry out library and patent search.
A.7.2. To be able to demonstrate the skills in dealing with scientific literature.

To handle
H. 8.1. To handle the proficiency in historical and methodological analysis
of scientific research and its results.

1.2. The place of discipline in module structure
and in the main educational program

Discipline «Nutrition physiology» refers to general scientific cycle of the variation
part and refers to Biotechnology preparation direction.
The discipline is based on bachelor’s program courses «Organic chemistry»,
«Analytic chemistry and physic-chemical methods of analysis», «Fundamentals
of biochemistry and molecular biology» and precedes the study of the disciplines
«Food chemistry», «Modern biotechnology problems», «Microbiological aspects
of biotechnological production» and «Biotechnology based on raw materials of plant
origin».

1.3. Laboriousness of discipline mastering

Auditorium classes, hrs

Lectures, hrs

Practical classes, hrs

Laboratory works, hrs

Independent students work, hrs

Kind of progress control

Total laboriousness, hrs

Total laboriousness according to the study plan, credits

Kinds of study work, control forms
Study terms, number

1

Total, h

54

18

18

18

54

–

108

3

54

18

18

18

54

Credit test

108

3

1.4. Brief discipline description

Discipline «Nutrition physiology» is dedicated to the study of the scientific
foundations of rational nutrition, digestion processes and digestive system,
chemical structure studying, biological activity of the main nutrients – proteins,
fats, carbohydrates, mineral substances, vitamins, as well as enzymes and hormones.
Studying the discipline students must obtain knowledge about their chemical
and spacious structure, physicochemical properties and biological functions.
Furthermore, requirements to high quality nutrition are considered in solving
the problem of providing people with biologically wholesome food and maintaining
homeostasis. Practical skills of working with food products and biologically active
compounds are acquired in laboratory classes, methods of analysis of raw materials
and final products are mastered.

1.5. Discipline content

Section 1. Introduction
Brief discipline characteristics, its aims, tasks, volume, content. The order of material
studying forms of independent work control. Characteristics of recommended books
are given.

Section 2. Nutrition as the main component
of healthy life-style formation process
History and evolution of human’s nutrition. Modern definition of «health,
homeostasis». Factors, determining modern human’s average life duration. Role

of nutrition in health sustaining and in civilization diseases emerging. Russia’s
state policy concept in organizing and providing population’s healthy nutrition.

Section 3. Theoretical bases of homeostasis and nutrition.
General notions about physiology and biochemistry of nutrition
Modern definition of the following concepts: homeostasis, digestion, food products,
appetite. Human’s digestive system. Structure and functions of gastrointestinal
tract. Types of digestion. Processes of absorption and fixation of nutrients. Brief
characteristics of structure and functioning of primary (microelement and
microecological systems) and complex secondary (immune, endocrine and nervous
systems) regulatory mechanisms of human’s homeostasis sustaining. The role
of gastrointestinal tract micro flora in the main nutrient’s metabolism.

Section 4. Concept of food quality, nutritional, biological
and energy value
The list of the main food products groups, containing essential and regulatory
food substances. Brief characteristics of composition and nutritional value of products
made of grain, meat and its substitutes, milk and dairy products, vegetables and
fruit, oils, fats and different sweets. Biological value of food. Definition of the concept
«recommended food components daily consumption rates». Energy exchange
(metabolism) of the organism. Energy value of food. Caloric coefficient of proteins,
fats and carbohydrates. Human’s daily requirement for the main nutrients.

Section 5. Medical-biological significance and functions
of the main food components
A list of main macro- and micronutrients. Physiological role of proteins, fats
carbohydrates, vitamins and mineral substances. Protein-calorie deficiency.
Significance of unsaturated fatty acids in human’s nutrition. Cholesterol and its
role in human’s organism. Hyper-, hypo- and avitaminosis. Physiological functions
of the main macro and microelements.

Section 6. Modern notions about rational nutrition
Theories and concepts of nutrition. Fundamentals of rational nutrition.
Ecological, medical-biological, socio-economical problems of rational nutrition.
Modern pyramid of healthy nutrition and principles of its construction. Combination
of products is the basis of healthy nutrition structure. Food substances and
energy recommended consumption rates. Modern human’s dietary intake. The main
groups of food. Concept of healthy nutrition. Analysis of alternative notions
about human’s nutrition. Separate nutrition. Fasting. Diets. Vegetarianism.

Section 7. Products creation principle
for alimentary correction of homeostasis disorder
Definition of food additive notion, probiotics, functional nutrition products.
Differences between clinical, dietary and functional nutrition. Medioprophylactic
nutrition.

Figure 1. Portrait of Greek physician Hippocrates [1]

1.6. What is nutrition physiology?

The science of nutrition physiology is an old science. Hippocrates (fig. 1),
the ancient Greek physician, was aware of the food effects on the body. Nutrition
physiology is the study of food’s effect on the human body’s ability to sustain
the chemical and physical processes that are necessary for biological life functions.

Nutrition physiology concerned with different types of food and their effects
on the metabolism. The importance of nutrition during growth, development,
and ageing is appreciated both in human medicine. Moreover, it has become
increasingly apparent that the body health depends on a healthy and functional
intestine and that many of today’s common diseases, such as heart failure, cancer
and diabetes, are related to intestine function and to the diet.
Nutrition physiology deals with:
1) how the body extracts the nutrients from the food;
2) how we obtain the needed energy;
3) how we utilize nutrients;
4) how all this is related to health and diseases.

2. NUTRITION AS A PART OF HEALTHY WAY
OF LIFE FORMATION

2.1. What means nutrition?

Nutrition is defined as the process whereby living organisms take in and
transform extraneous solid and liquid substances necessary for the maintenance
of life, growth, the normal functioning of organs and the energy production.
In general terms, the consumption of food serves a twofold purpose for the human
body: first, it provides the source for energy, which is measured in calories;
secondly, food assists the multitude of chemical functions required to sustain life.
One of the most important and complex problems which humanity faces is
providing world’s population with food products. From the one hand nutrition is
one of the most important environmental factors, but from the other hand it
influences human’s organism during all his life. Chemical components of food
products get into human’s organism from the environment with food, during
metabolism they turn into cells structure elements, provide organism with energy
and plastic material, determine health and human’s organism duration of life.
In connection with this, nutrition condition along with the other factors determines
both nation’s and everybody’s health.
Food products should satisfy human’s requirements in main nutritives as well
as perform preventive and medicinal functions effectively.
In Russian Federation great attention is paid to these issues on the state level,
so RF Government order on the 25 of October 2010 № 1873-р passed «Fundamentals
of the RF state policy in healthy nutrition till 2020», «Doctrine of food safety
of the Russian Federation» has been approved. State policy in healthy nutrition
means complex of measures for creating conditions ensuring satisfaction of RF
population needs in rational healthy nutrition, however it is essential to take into
consideration its traditions, habits, economic condition.
Russian population’s health has worsened during recent decades – children,
teenagers and elderly people in particular. Furthermore, average lifespan has been
reducing (58 years for men, 73 – for women, 65.5 years on average), because
general disease incidence has been increasing. These rates are considerably lower
than in most of the highly developed countries. Cardio-vascular and oncological
diseases rank the first among reasons for mortality. It is believed that their
development relates to poor nutrition to some extent.
It is necessary to note that Russian population nutrition is not rational and (according
to the data of Nutrition Institute of RAS) the main food status disturbances are:
– excess consumption of animal fats,

Furthermore, consuming sub-quality, falsified and dangerous for the human’s
health products exerts negative influence. RF law № 29-ФЗ «About food products
quality and safety» adopted on January 2, 2000 favours the elimination of these
drawbacks.
All this requires technology of traditional products obtaining to be improved
and new food products generation to be created.

2.2. What does the motion give?

First, the physical exercises reduce the appetite. This phenomenon is explained
by the peculiarities of our thermoregulation: to avoid the overheat after training,
the organism needs to transport much bigger blood volume through the vessels

Meat

Milk

Eggs, pieces

Fish and seafood

Sugar

Vegetable oil

Potatoes

Vegetables

Fruit and berries

Bakery products

T a b l e   1
Annual consumption of the main food products in RF per capita
(according to the data of Rosstat, 31.12.2019 [2])

Products
Annual consumption in 2018

Per capita, kg
% of rational norm

Rational norm, kg

81

392

298

23.7

40

13.6

120

145

76

107

75

229

280

20.2

39

14.0

89

107

61

116

92.6

58.4

94.0

85.2

97.5

102.9

74.2

73.8

80.3

108.4

– deficit of polyunsaturated fatty acids,
– deficit of animal proteins,
– deficit of vitamins (С, В2, В1, А, -carotene, folic acid, tocopherol),
– deficit of mineral substances (Са, Fе),
– deficit of dietary fibres.
Malnutrition is caused by underconsumption of the both main food nutrients
(tab. 1), and vitamins and minerals.

at the same period. However, when human eats, blood rushes to the stomach
to make the digestion easier. Thus, in order to avoid blood usage «not as intended»
at the moment the organism should switch off a sense of hunger for a while.
As a result, a person drinks more water or juices, eats fruit and vegetables and avoids
heavy food. It is known that this effect lasts about 1 hour. After that the organism
seeking to fill in energy reserves will send intensive signals of hunger.
Secondly, we help our organism stay healthy and be in a good shape
by constantly moving and practicing sport or physical training. Physical exercise
improves muscle tone, fatty tissue becomes denser. As a result, cardiac muscle
tone improves, blood vessels load reduces, and the body looks more fit and
slim as well.

2.3. Factors determining the lifespan
of a modern person

A person in the course of his life is under the constant influence of several
external factors – from environmental to social. They all have a direct impact
on the vital functions, health and lifespan. It should be noted that the role of various
factors in the population health is assessed as follows: lifestyle (49–53 %), human
genetics (18–22 %), environment (17–20 %), public health (8–10 %). The modern
scientists believe that life expectancy directly depends on social conditions of life:
daily life, working conditions and severity, nutrition, recreation and lifestyle.
Let’s discuss a nutrition role in maintaining health and initiating diseases
of the civilization. Healthy human nutrition study is carried out considering age,
profession, physical and neuropsychic activity, and national and climate
peculiarities. One of the most important and complex problems which humanity
faces is providing world’s population with food products. The population faces
an acute problem of protein nutrition provision; especially there is a shortage
of animal proteins. In different countries and regions of the Earth the average quantity
of protein in human ration varies a lot. So, in Australia and New Zealand daily
ration contains 106 g of proteins, in which animal protein is about 70 %, while
in a few Eastern countries the total protein amount is only 50 g and animal protein
are hardly 6–10 g. By 2050, the World’s population will approach to 9 billion people.
We can assume that due to lack of food in the next 40 years, humanity will become
completely vegetarian (fig. 2).
Cardio-vascular and oncological diseases rank the first among reasons
for mortality. It is believed that their development relates to poor nutrition to some
extent. Obesity is a serious disease of the century 21, which has come from the West
along with potato chips and hamburgers.
Nowadays in Russia there is also a problem of excess weight. In Sverdlovsk
region over 55 % of adult population suffer from overweight and obesity.