Сбор, диагностика и обработка палеонтологических материалов при проведении учебных геологических практик

МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

Федеральное государственное автономное образовательное

учреждение высшего образования

«ЮЖНЫЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

А. Н. Леднев, О. С. Бондарева

СБОР, ДИАГНОСТИКА И ОБРАБОТКА 

ПАЛЕОНТОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ МАТЕРИАЛОВ 

ПРИ ПРОВЕДЕНИИ УЧЕБНЫХ 

ГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ПРАКТИК

Учебное пособие на модульной основе

Ростов-на-Дону – Таганрог
Издательство Южного федерального университета
2022

УДК 550.8:56(075.8)
ББК 26.3+28.1 я73  
       Л39

Печатается по решению кафедры общей и инженерной геологии  
Института наук о Земле Южного федерального университета  
 (протокол № 6 от 19 апреля 2022 г.)

Рецензенты:

кафедры общей и инженерной геологии Института наук  
о Земле ЮФУ А. Э. Хардиков;

директор филиала «АИИС – Ростов-на-Дону (ассоциация  
«Инженерные изыскания в строительстве» Общероссийское  
отраслевое объединение работодателей»),  
кандидат геолого-минералогических наук Н. М. Хансиварова

 

Леднев, А. Н.
Сбор, диагностика и обработка палеонтологических материа-
лов при проведении учебных геологических практик : учебное 
пособие на модульной основе / А. Н. Леднев, О. С. Бондарева ; 
Южный федеральный университет. – Ростов-на-Дону ; Таганрог : 
Издательство Южного федерального университета, 2022. – 128 с. 
ISBN 978-5-9275-4125-6

В издании рассмотрены общие положения и основные понятия па-
леонтологии, приведена характеристика наиболее важных для геологии 
групп беспозвоночных с кратким описанием таксонов, основные направ-
ления палеонтологических исследований в области древних беспозвоноч-
ных организмов: систематика, эволюция, таксономия и номенклатура, 
образ жизни и условия существования, тафономия, стратиграфическое 
и породообразующее значение. В пособии в доступной форме изложены 
методика и конкретные практические рекомендации по проведению па-
леонтологических исследований в помощь иностранным студентам при 
прохождении общей геологической и геолого-съемочной практик. Посо-
бие предназначено для студентов бакалавриата направления подготовки 
05.03.01 «Геология», может использоваться студентами других направ-
лений и специальностей: 21.05.02 «Прикладная геология», 05.03.04 «Ги-
дрометеорология», 05.03.02 «География», 05.03.06 «Экология и приро-
допользование».
УДК 550.8:56(075.8) 
ББК 26.3+28.1 я73 
ISBN 978-5-9275-4125-6 
 
© Южный федеральный университет, 2022
© Леднев А. Н., Бондарева О. С., 2022
© Оформление. Макет. Издательство Южного федерального  
 университета, 2022

Л39

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution  

of Higher Education

“SOUTHERN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY”

Institute of Earth Sciences

A. N. Lednev, O. S. Bondareva

STUDY GUIDE ON A MODULAR BASIS

“COLLECTION, DIAGNOSTICS AND 

PROCESSING OF PALEONTOLOGICAL 

MATERIALS DURING EDUCATIONAL 

GEOLOGICAL PRACTICES”

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction .................................................................. 7

1. Types of preservation of fossil organisms and their 
significance ................................................................... 9

2. The principle of using paleontological information ........ 15

3. Methodology for the field study of fossil remains of 
organisms ................................................................... 19
3.1. Conditions for the preservation of fossil  
organic remains ........................................................ 19
3.2. Search and field collection of fossil organisms ........ 21
3.3. Primary processing of paleontological material ....... 25
3.4. Preliminary determination of organic residues ........ 29
3.5. Rules for the pronunciation of Latin names ............ 33

4. The system of the organic world ................................. 35
4.1. Animal Kingdom. Regnum Zoa (Animalia)  
Protozoa sub-kingdom, or unicellular.  
Subregnum Protozoa ................................................. 35
4.1.1. Sarcodes type. Phylum Sarcodina .................... 35
4.1.2. Sponges type. Phylum Spongiata ..................... 37
4.1.3. Hemichordates type. Phylum Hemichordata ...... 38
4.1.4. Arthropods type. Phylum Arthropoda ................ 38
4.1.5. Mollusca type. (Mollusks) General  
characteristics of fossil organisms. Phylum Mollusca ... 40
4.1.6. Echinoderms type Echinodermata
(Greek echinos – hedgehog; dermatos – skin) ............ 48

5. Tasks to control residual knowledge on the history  
of Earth development ................................................... 58

6. Test tasks ................................................................ 81
6.1. Types of preservation of fossil organisms, chemical 
composition and rock-forming role .............................. 81

6.2. History of paleontology and some patterns  
of evolution ............................................................. 83
6.3. Habitat and way of life of organisms ..................... 85
6.4. Major biotic events in the history  
of the organic world .................................................. 90
6.5. Classification and systematics. The system of the 
organic world ........................................................... 91
6.6. Animal kingdom. Regnum Zoa. Protozoa  
sub-kingdom Subregnum Protozoa ............................... 92
6.6.1. Foraminifera class. Classic Foraminifera .......... 93
6.6.2. Radiolaria class. Classic Radiolaria .................. 96
6.6.3. Multicellular sub-kingdom. Subregnum  
Metazoa .............................................................. 99
6.6.4. Supersection Eumetazoa.
Superdivisio Eumetazoa ........................................102
6.6.5. Cnidaria type. Phylum Cnidari .......................102
6.6.6. Coral hydranths class. Classic Authozoa ..........103
6.6.7. Bilaterally symmetric section. Divisio  
Bilateria .............................................................106
6.6.8. Arthropods type. Phylum Arthropoda ...............107
6.6.9. Mollusca type. Phylum Mollusca ....................109
6.6.10. Gastropods class. Classis Gastropoda .............110
6.6.11. Bivalvia class. Classis Bivalvia .....................112
6.6.12. Cephalopods. Classic Cephalopoda ..................113
6.6.13. Bryozoans type. Phylum Bryozoa ..................115
6.6.14. Brachiopods type. Phylum Brachiopoda ..........115
6.6.15. Echinoderm type.Phylum Echinodermata .......117

7. Thematic lexicon .....................................................120

8. Key answers to test tasks .........................................122

Literature ..................................................................125

INTRODUCTION

Paleontology studies the organic world of the past. Such a good 
name “paleontology” (Greek palaios – ancient; on, ontos – being; 
logos – concept, teaching), which well reflects the essence of the 
science of ancient creatures, was proposed in 1822 by the French 
zoologist H. M. D. de Blainville (1777-1850). Soon, in 1834, 
Professor G. I. Fischer von Waldheim of Moscow University 
adopted this term, although he had previously used the name 
“petromatognosia”. Moreover, he not only began to use the term 
“paleontology” himself, but also contributed in every possible 
way to its introduction into scientific and educational literature. 
Therefore, G. I. Fischer, along with H. M. D. de Blainville, is 
considered the author of the term “paleontology”.
The primary and most important task of research is to 
establish the normal sequence and relationships of rock masses 
composing this area.
The change of complexes of fossil animals and plants observed 
in the sedimentary strata is due to the change in time of the 
environmental conditions and the irreversible evolution of the 
organic world. The last factor determines the significance of 
organic remains for stratigraphy.
The rate of evolutionary changes of organisms is different, they 
react differently to changes in external conditions, and therefore 
their remains in continuous sections occupy unequal intervals.
 The limitation of the vertical distribution of remains in the 
section is one of the mandatory requirements for guide fossils. 
It is also important that these fossils have a wide geographical 
distribution, are often found in rocks and are fairly well 
preserved.
Paleontological material allows to draw stratigraphic 
boundaries in sections in various ways. One can be guided by 
the appearance of new forms, the disappearance of old ones and 
the flourishing of organisms, as indicated by the abundance of 
their remains in sediments. In all cases, it should be borne in 
mind that these stages of development usually do not coincide in 
different groups.

Introduction

The remains of rapidly evolved organisms are the most 
important for dismemberment, and of particular value are those 
that form clear phylogenetic series (i. e., series of related forms 
that successively replace each other in time).
Most of the fossils of organisms of past geological epochs 
are determined macroscopically. To clarify the details of the 
structure of the skeleton, incisions, grinding, prints are made.
The value of fossils is determined not only by their prevalence 
in time and space, but also by the peculiarity of their association 
with specific types of rocks and the pace of their evolution.
Groups of fossil organisms make it possible to carry out a 
detailed dismemberment of sections and carry out their detailed 
correlation. The data are used in the research complex.
In certain regions, these organisms are of crucial importance for 
stratigraphy, as they are guide forms and allow paleogeographic 
reconstructions of sedimentation environments, as they are good 
indicators of the environment.
We are deeply grateful to all the researchers whose works were 
used when writing the study guide: A. S. Byakov, O. B. Bon- 
darenko, V. V. Drushchits, N. V. Beznosov, I. I. Akimushkin,  
I. A. Mikhailova and many others.
Control questions and test tasks are compiled taking into 
account the specific features of the structure of geological 
polygons and include questions covering the main sections of 
geological knowledge.

1. TYPES OF PRESERVATION OF FOSSIL  
ORGANISMS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

In paleontological studies, special attention is paid to the 
types of preservation of fossil organisms, which depend both 
on the composition of the skeleton and on the specifics of the 
process of petrifaction or fossilization.
The death and subsequent burial of organisms is accompanied 
by the influence of various environmental factors. They undergo 
all the processes of diagenesis, i.e. physical and chemical 
transformations during the transition of sediment into the rock 
in which they are enclosed.
After the death of the organism, soft tissues are destroyed 
in the first turn, then the filling of the voids of the skeleton 
with enclosing sediment or mineral compounds begins. 
Sometimes the cavities of the skeleton undergo pyritization, 
ferruginization, druses and brushes of calcite, amethyst, 
fluorite, galena, etc. often appear in them. Fossil skeletons 
are often found enclosed in phosphorite concretions. During 
fossilization, the skeletons undergo recrystallization, leading to 
more stable mineral modifications. For example, aragonite shells 
are transformed into calcite ones. There are frequent cases of 
mineralization, when the primary chemical composition of the 
skeleton changes (pseudomorphoses). Thus, calcareous shells are 
partially or completely replaced by aqueous silica and vice versa. 
Phosphatization, pyritization and ferruginization of mineral 
and organic skeletons are also observed.
Plants during fossilization are usually completely destroyed, 
which is facilitated by the processes of decay and fermentation. 
Nevertheless, fossil plants have been found since the Precambrian. 
Most often, charred remains of leaves are preserved from  
plants.
Plant tissues, during fossilization, are often replaced by 
various mineral compounds, most often silica, carbonate and 
pyrite.
Depending on the completeness of preservation and 
distinctness of the remains, the following categories of fossils are 

1. Types of preservation of fossil organisms and their significance

distinguished: subfossils, eufossils, ichnofossils, coprofossils, 
chemofossils (Bondarenko, Mikhailova, etc.).
Subfossils (lat. sub – under, almost) are represented by fossils 
(almost fossils), which have preserved not only the skeleton, but 
also slightly modified soft tissues. For Plant remains, the term 
“phytoleums” is used (Greek: phyton – plant; leimma – residue). 
These are plant remains modified to varying degrees, preserving 
the cellular structure. The subfossils include phytoleims from 
quaternary sediments – seeds, nuts, coniferous cones, wood 
buried in peat bogs. 
More modified phytoleums are eufossils. The unique finds of 
some animals of this time, such as mammoths, rhinoceroses and 
birds, also belong to the subfossils. Preservatives for such fossils 
are permafrost, various bitumen, volcanic ash, aeolian sands.  
It was believed that amber is also an excellent preservative, but 
soft tissues are not preserved in amber. At the same time, the 
fossils in amber (both plants and animals) completely retain their 
shape, which makes it possible to carefully study their external 
morphology. But an attempt to extract the object ends up with 
all the contents crumbling into dust. Subfossils are much less 
common in sediments older than Quaternary.
Eufossilia, or euphossilia (Greek: ei – well, real) are represented 
by whole skeletons or fragments of skeletons and their discrete 
elements, as well as prints and cores. Skeletons are the main 
objects of paleontological research. Skeletal remains have a 
mineral or organic composition. These are shells and skeletons of 
animals, shells of bacteria and fungi, as well as organic remains 
of leaves, seeds, fruits, spores and pollen. Special mention 
should be made of phytoleims, represented to varying degrees 
by charred remains of leaves, wood, seeds, fruits, spores and  
pollen.
Sometimes the term “organic-walled microfossils” is used, 
which include the shells of bacteria and fungi, filamentous 
cyanobionts, as well as spores and pollen. The sizes of such 
fossils are less than 100 microns. Organic-walled microfossils 
can have very good preservation even in Precambrian sediments 

1. Types of preservation of fossil organisms and their significance

(see Fig. 250). The term “organic-walled” can also be extended 
to macrofossils.
Many eufossils retain information not only about the soft 
parts of the body and its functional systems, such as circulatory, 
reproductive, conducting bundles of plants, etc., but also about 
lifestyle and biogeochemical processes.
Ichnofossils (Greek: ichnos – trace) are represented by traces 
of the vital activity of fossil organisms. Most often they are 
preserved in the form of prints, less often in the form of low-
volume formations. Ichnofossils include traces of crawling and 
burying of arthropods, worms, bivalves; traces of eating, mink, 
passages and traces of drilling of sponges, bivalves, arthropods; 
traces of movement of vertebrates.
Coprophossilia (Greek: kopros – droppings, manure) consist 
of waste products of fossil organisms. They have a voluminous 
character, being preserved in the form of rollers, nodules, mounds, 
columns and even formation bodies. The term “coprophossilia” 
was proposed in 1989 in the textbook “General Paleontology”. It 
is based on the name “coprolites”, introduced into the scientific 
literature over 150 years ago and denoting “petrified animal 
excrement” (Paleontological Dictionary, 1965).
The most typical coprofossils include the final products of 
digestion of mud-eaters and vertebrates; in the second group 
of coprophossilia, undigested remains of other animals and 
plants can be preserved. The coprophossils of the mud-eaters are 
represented by rollers and ribbons, which, at first glance, do not 
seem to differ from the surrounding stones. But after passing 
through the intestines of the mud-eater, the sediment is enriched 
with calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus. As 
a result, the coprophossils of the mud-eaters acquire a lighter 
or, conversely, a darker, often reddish hue, which distinguishes 
them from the surrounding stones. The process of sludge 
processing by mud-eaters and biofilters is called bioturbation. 
Most sedimentary deposits of the present and the past undergo 
bioturbation. The end products of bioturbation and traces of 
vital activity are sometimes called bioglyphs.

1. Types of preservation of fossil organisms and their significance

Chemofossils (Greek: chemie – chemistry) include organic fossil 
biomolecules of bacterial, cyanobiont, plant and animal origin. 
Chemofossils store the chemical composition of biomolecules, 
which allows to determine the systematic position of the original 
organism, but not its morphology. The study of the chemical 
and taxonomic diversity of сhemofossils is closely related to 
the problems of the origin and development of life, as well as 
the origin of fossil fuels, especially oil. The biological factor in 
the formation of oil has long been denied, considering it only 
chemogenic. Advances in the study of chemophossilia prove the 
opposite. Chemophossils are the object of study of biochemistry 
and molecular paleontology. 
Sometimes fossils form pseudofossils (Greek: pseudos – lies). 
False forms that are not peculiar to the mineral substance. 
Pseudofossils, or false fossils, owe their origin to various 
mechanical, physical and chemical processes that affected 
sedimentary rock during its formation, diagenesis or weathering. 
In the latter case, harder mineral formations stand out sharply 
against the background of soft rock. Pseudofossils are mainly 
associated with concretions (Latin concreto – concentration; 
the process consisting in the fact that mineral solutions, when 
deposited, form irregular lenticular, spherical or nodular 
aggregates), infiltration (infiltration of dissolved substances 
and cementation of rocks by them) and with the influence of 
weathering processes.
Geologists and paleontologists quite often have to deal 
with objects whose systematic affiliation to a particular group 
of organisms is unclear and, moreover, it is not even always 
provable at all that they belong to the remains of organisms. All 
such remains are called problematic. There are, however, several 
different understandings of this term. Most paleontologists 
understand by problems any remains of organisms for which it 
is impossible to indicate the exact belonging to a particular class 
or even type.These may be single, completely incomprehensible 
forms, sometimes parts of the skeleton that do not give a 
complete picture of the whole skeleton; individual genus,