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Кросс-культурный менеджмент = Cross-cultural management

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В учебном пособии освещаются вопросы управления отношениями, возникающими на границе национальных и организационных структур. Авторская интерпретация ключевых понятий и концептов курса и конкретные примеры помогут студентам анализировать все уровни культуры, преодолевать коммуникативные барьеры и эффективно общаться с носителями различных культурных традиций. Для студентов, изучающих международный менеджмент, международные отношения, а также для специалистов в сфере коммуникаций.
Голоусова, Е. С. Кросс-культурный менеджмент = Cross-cultural management : учебное пособие / Е. С. Голоусова ; М-во образования и науки Рос. Федерации, Урал. федер. ун-т. - Екатеринбург : Изд-во Уральского ун-та, 2017. - 76 с. - ISBN 978-5-7996-2189-6. - Текст : электронный. - URL: https://znanium.com/catalog/product/1938951 (дата обращения: 28.03.2024). – Режим доступа: по подписке.
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2017

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

УРАЛЬСКИЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ 
ИМЕНИ ПЕРВОГО ПРЕЗИДЕНТА РОССИИ Б. Н. ЕЛЬЦИНА

Е. С. Голоусова

КРОСС-КУЛЬТУРНЫЙ 
МЕНЕДЖМЕНТ

CROSS-CULTURAL 
MANAGEMENT

Учебное пособие

Рекомендовано методическим советом УрФУ
для студентов, обучающихся по программе бакалавриата
по направлению подготовки 42.03.02 «Журналистика»

© Уральский федеральный университет, 2017
ISBN 978-5-7996-2189-6

Р е ц е н з е н т ы:
А. В. Владыко, учитель английского языка 
(гимназия № 210 «Корифей», Екатеринбург),
старший эксперт региональной предметной комиссии 
Свердловской области по ЕГЭ (английский язык), 
методист Представительства Кембриджских экзаменов в России,
устный экзаменатор Кембриджских экзаменов;
А. Г. Логинова, заведующий международным отделом
Библиотечного центра «Екатеринбург»

ББК С506я73-1
        Г617

Голоусова, Е. С.
Кросс-культурный менеджмент = Cross-cultural management : 
[учеб. пособие] / Е. С. Голоусова ; М-во образования и науки Рос. 
Федерации, Урал. федер. ун-т. — Екатеринбург : Изд-во Урал. ун-та, 
2017. — 76 с. — Загл. парал. рус., англ. — Текст англ.

ISBN 978-5-7996-2189-6

В учебном пособии освещаются вопросы управления отношениями, 
возникающими на границе национальных и организационных структур. 
Авторская интерпретация ключевых понятий и концептов курса и конкретные 
примеры помогут студентам анализировать все уровни культуры, преодолевать 
коммуникативные барьеры и эффективно общаться с носителями 
различных культурных традиций. 
Для студентов, изучающих международный менеджмент, международные 
отношения, а также для специалистов в сфере комму никаций.

c617

ББК С506я73-1

На обложке:
центр Буэнос-Айреса; фото Е. С. Голоусовой (2016)

Preface .............................................................................................................. 4 

Chapter 1. The specifi cs of cross-cultural management .................................. 7

Chapter 2. Cross-cultural skills and cross-cultural awareness ...................... 14 

Chapter 3. Preparing to work in the intercultural community ...................... 22 

Chapter 4. Models of international management and main features 
 
of managers’ training in different cultures................................... 29

Chapter 5. Intercultural competence ............................................................. 34

Chapter 6. The current state of the Russian business culture: origins, 
 
problems, and perspectives .......................................................... 45

Chapter 7. Main issues in the global business culture ................................... 54

Self-assessment tasks  .................................................................................... 67

Final exam questions  ..................................................................................... 73

References  ..................................................................................................... 74

CONTENTS

The idea of this book began to take shape back in the 1990-s and 
is largely based on the author’s personal experience. In 1995, I spent 
an academic year in the USA as an exchange student. I studied at the US 
high school and lived with an American host family, which certainly af-
fected my worldview and enabled me to open up new cultural horizons. 
I realized that this experience would stay with me forever and it would 
be great to share it with a larger audience. Deep inside I knew that there 
had to be a way to incorporate this tremendous experience into my future 
both from personal and professional point of view. Starting from that 
moment I became determined that cross-cultural experience and anything 
related to it should become an indispensable part of my life. Luckily, it 
happened. I entered the Department of Journalism of the Ural Federal 
University and wrote a diploma on foreign media, where I compared 
Russian and American approach to news coverage. 
Moreover, I was also fortunate to work for a number of international 
projects, including Joint River Management Program, established by 
the European Union and aimed at water quality assessment of trans-
boundary rivers. We had people from many different countries working on 
this project, including Russia, Kazakhstan, Germany, England, Ukraine, 
Georgia. I also worked for the local offi ce of American Councils for In-
ternational Education, fi rst as an alumni assistant and later as recruiting 
assistant. I got to travel with our American boss across the Ural region 
and while on the way to the city of our destination or back home, we 
would talk a lot about cultural issues, people’s behavior under different 
cultural conditions. A few years later, I decided to focus on my academic 
career and started working on my PhD, which again had to do with 
foreign media and extreme news coverage. Upon completing my PhD, 

PREFACE

I was invited to work as a lecturer at the Department of Journalism and 
that is when my idea of writing a book on cross-cultural management 
was developed. Within last fi ve years, we had a number of guests from 
different countries, who came to speak about media issues and the state 
of journalism in the framework of conferences and discussion sessions. 
We had experts from Poland, Finland, Hungary, Sweden, USA, China 
and Argentina. With most of our guests, we continue to keep in touch 
and look forward to having mutual projects in future. 
I am sure that the same or even more considerable amount of inter-
national contacts exists at many departments of educational centers all 
over Russia. The only thing that remains unclear for some of the local 
scholars and nonprofessionals is how to actually communicate with 
people from abroad. “How to get a message through to a representative 
of another culture” — seems to be one of the most common questions 
in terms of cross-cultural management. In this respect, the role of cross-
cultural awareness in today’s life should not be underestimated. 
Therefore, the main goal of this manual is to introduce students 
to the main concepts and various defi nitions of cross-cultural commu-
nication. One of the top objectives of the course is to provide students 
with basic theory related to cross cultural communication, that will en-
able them to distinguish the attributes of another culture, no matter what 
code system is being used, and be aware of signifi cant cultural elements 
present in the behavior of an individual or a group. 
Consequently, among the objectives pursued by the author were 
the following: 
— to explain the specifi cs of cross-cultural management;
— to explain possible ways of understanding different aspects 
of cultures; 
— to introduce the students to the concept of cultural literacy offered 
by Eric Donald Hirsch and the cultural dimensions theory presented by 
Geert Hofstede; 
— to introduce the students to the phenomenon of culture shock and 
ways to manage cross cultural confl icts. 
The manual consists of theoretical part (seven chapters), practi-
cal training (seven sets of workshops), Self-Assessment Tasks, Exam 

Questions, and Bibliography. The students are supposed to study each 
chapter carefully and afterwards complete two individual assignments. 
There are fi ve different types of assignments — article, essay, letter, 
review, presentation, or case study. Upon fi nishing working with the last 
chapter, the students should proceed to Self-Assessment Tasks. This sec-
tion is meant to help students better evaluate their personal progress and 
give an idea of what part of the course should perhaps be studies more 
carefully or revised. After completing the part Self-Assessment Tasks 
the student might want to move on to the section Exam Question to get 
an idea in order to prepare more effectively to the fi nal exam. 
Approximate time spent for working on every chapter — fi ve aca-
demic hours. It is supposed, however, that the students will work inde-
pendently, studying additional sources and analyzing material offered 
by numerous electronic sources. Thus, the total time for working with 
the entire manual is 35–40 academic hours. 
The students majoring in Communication, Public Relations, Business 
Administration and International Management should fi nd the following 
manual useful. 

Chapter 1

THE SPECIFICS OF CROSS-CULTURAL 
MANAGEMENT 

Defi nitions of the key terms — culture, communication, manage-
ment. The theory of cultural dimensions offered by Geert Hoftstede. 
The Iceberg Analogy or Model 

Cross-cultural management is a relatively new fi eld of study and is 
based on theories and research from the following disciplines:
— cross-cultural communication;
— international management;
— psychology of communication.
As we see it, the key issues here are “culture”, “communication”, 
and “management”. What is the best way to defi ne culture? According 
to the concept which is being commonly used both by the experts and 
the representative of mass audience, culture refers to the cumulative 
deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, and attitudes. It is also 
related to meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial 
relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions 
acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through in-
dividual and group striving. The word “culture” derives from a French 
term, which in turn derives from the Latin “colere”, which means to tend 
to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. “It shares its etymol-
ogy with a number of other words related to actively fostering growth”, 
Cristina De Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College 
in London, told Live Science [Zimmerman et al.]. 
Today culture is also regarded the following way: 
— culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large 
group of people;
— culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the to-
tality of a person’s learned, accumulated experience which is socially 
transmitted, or more briefl y, behavior through social learning.

Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include 
a group’s skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The mean-
ings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society 
through its institutions.
Southgate College in London, told Live Science [Zimmerman et al.]. 
A Spanish liberal philosopher and sociologist José Ortega y Gasset 
defi ned culture “labor, creation of human things; creation of science, 
moral principles, and art. When we talk about higher or lower level 
of culture, we are talking about larger or smaller ability to create human 
things” [Graham, p. 300]. However, in this case where can we draw 
a line between the culture and the civilization? a German philosopher 
Oswald Schpengler, one the founders of the contemporary culture phi-
losophy, focuses on the collective soul as integral part of culture. As 
for the civilization, the rational principal and intelligence are guiding 
it [Spengler]. 
Culture is not something concrete or tangible, as it cannot be seen 
or touched. However, we know it exists because people from the same 
society have roughly the same customs or behavior, basic beliefs and 
values, and way of viewing the world. Culture causes this to happen. 
We informally or tacitly acquire our primary culture well before ado-
lescence during our formative years as our basic personality is taking 
shape. The concept of culture has always had a somewhat psychoana-
lytic meaning, with a heavy emphasis on the importance of its hidden 
or unconscious aspects [Weaver]. 
It is likely that spirituality helps to transform the culture to one 
of the fundamental ethnic-forming factors. Moreover, it is due to the cul-
ture the individual is capable of realizing his/her own national identity 
and perceives himself as part of the certain community with the same 
historical background, similar values, and aspirations. The person can 
identify himself with a particular group of people only when he consid-
ers himself the bearer of their cultural values. That is what appears to be 
more signifi cant referring to the national identity than the voice of blood. 
For example, a leading Latin American literary fi gure Alejo Carpentier 
though born in Lausanne to a French father and a Russian mother claimed 
throughout his life that he was Cuban-born [Weaver]. 

Culture could be explored in many ways. For instance, each cul-
ture could be analyzed in terms of its components: people’s behavior, 
common habits, and customs. Alternatively, we could also contrast and 
compare some hidden aspects of culture such as unspoken and implicit 
traditional or mainstream attitudes, values, beliefs, ways of perceiving 
reality, and types of interaction. Some cultures may promote the ideas 
of individualism, while others might advocate collectivism and interde-
pendence [Golovleva].
Management is normally understood as:
— a type of activity;
— art and science;
— category of personnel;
— executive offi ce.
The main task of management is to make information, skills, knowl-
edge, and experience the driving force, which in turn will help company 
or organization’s growth in the global marketplace. 
As for communication, we believe it to be a process of exchanging 
messages and information among individuals or groups of individuals. 
Thus, cross-cultural communication is a process of communication 
between representative of different cultures and lingual and cultural 
communities; it is a totality of different forms, attitudes and communica-
tion between individuals and groups, that belong to different countries 
[Golovleva]. 
The theory of mass communication is considered a relatively new 
area of study, although cross-cultural contacts date back to the time im-
memorial. E. Hall and G. Trader were the fi rst ones to introduce the term 
“cross-cultural communication” by sharing their ideas in the book “Cul-
ture and communication”, where the authors claimed to perceive culture 
as communication and vice versa. Even before the theoretical ground for 
future research had been shaped, Aristotle, G. Leibniz, I. Gerder, I. Kant, 
V. Humboldt and others, discussed the basic issues. 
One of the possible ways to understand and start analyzing culture 
and cultural traditions of different countries is applying models or al-
gorithms that were suggested by numerous scholars. One of the most 
common models to analyze the cross-cultural communication is called 

the Iceberg Analogy or model. It is true that when we meet somebody 
who comes from a different cultural background, we can very often 
identify that they are from another country by simply looking at some 
explicit behavioral characteristic. For example, whenever a foreign 
tourist appeared in the former Soviet Union, the locals usually had no 
problems identifying them as most of the foreign guests spoke another 
language, were wearing bright clothes, and smiled all the time — some-
thing the Soviet people rarely did in public. Therefore, what could be 
placed on top of the iceberg is human behavior. When we enter another 
culture, we usually see the tips of the iceberg or external culture. People 
speak different language, use different gestures to express their ideas, eat 
different food and worship in different ways [Weaver]. When a person 
starts living in another culture, he is capable of adjusting to new customs 
and life style within a couple of months or even sooner. He can learn 
the language, get used to local food and family rituals. This is the easiest 
part of the culture to learn, or the top of the iceberg. 
In the middle of an iceberg, we have beliefs. They can be related 
to politics, religion or economy, and could be sometimes considered 
contradictory as people can hold different beliefs. If a foreigner interferes 
this section by for instance, mocking national political system, the locals’ 
reaction might be unpredictable. For example, some people would put it 
this way: “I myself can make fun of the local government, but I would 
not tolerate the foreigners doing so”. 
The most important and much hidden part of the culture is at the base. 
It is almost entirely learned unconsciously and its basic components 
include basic values, ways of thinking, and worldviews. This part is 
the most diffi cult to understand, analyze and refl ect upon. 
However, the common mistake made by the people is when we as-
sume that if a person behaves as we do, he thinks as we do and shares 
the same set of values with us. I remember having an American boss, who 
was fl uent in Russian, loved Russian food, dressed like an average Rus-
sian, but she grew up in the USA and therefore was a product of American 
culture. Therefore, what could be derived from here is the idea, that even 
when the person acquires some external elements from the local culture, 
it does not necessarily mean that he has changed from the inside.

Geert Hofstede introduced another theory referring to the complexity 
of cultural analysis. In particular, his cultural dimensions theory describes 
the effects of a society’s culture on the values of its members, and how 
these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor 
analysis [Hoftstede, p. 240–250]. 
Here are the dimensions of national cultures, initially offered by 
Hoftstede and specifi ed by Michael Harris Bond and Michael Minkov. 
1. Power Distance Index (PDI) 
“Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members 
of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that 
power is distributed unequally” [Hoftstede, p. 205]. Individuals in a so-
ciety that exhibit a high degree of power distance accept hierarchies 
in which everyone has a place without the need for justifi cation. Societies 
with low power distance seek to have equal distribution of power. Cul-
tures that endorse low power distance expect and accept power relations 
that are consultative or democratic.
2. Individualism (IDV) vs. collectivism 
“The degree to which individuals are integrated into groups” [Hoft-
stede, p. 205]. In individualistic societies, the stress is put on personal 
achievements and individual rights. People are expected to stand up for 
themselves and their immediate family, and to choose their own affi lia-
tions. In contrast, in collectivist societies, individuals act predominantly 
as members of a lifelong and cohesive group or organization (note: 
“The word collectivism in this sense has no political meaning: it refers 
to the group, not to the state”). People have large extended families, 
which are used as a protection in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
3. Uncertainty avodiance index (UAI) 
“A society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity” [Hoftstede, 
p. 205]. It refl ects the extent to which members of a society attempt 
to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. People in cultures with 
high uncertainty avoidance tend to be more emotional. In contrast, low 
uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstruc-
tured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules 
as possible. People in these cultures tend to be more pragmatic, they are 
more tolerant of change.

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