Methodology of Scientific and Project Activities

МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ 

РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ 

Федеральное государственное автономное образовательное  

учреждение высшего образования 

«ЮЖНЫЙ ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» 

Инженерно-технологическая академия 

 
 
 
 
 
 

Е. В. ПАПЧЕНКО 
Т. А. НЕЧАЕВА 

 

METHODOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC  

AND PROJECT ACTIVITIES 

 

Учебное пособие  

для обучающихся в магистратуре 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Ростов-на-Дону – Таганрог 

Издательство Южного федерального университета 

2020 
 

УДК 1:001 (075.8)+001.89 (075.8) 
ББК 87.25я73+72.4я73 

П179 

Печатается по решению кафедры философии Института управления  

в экономических, экологических и социальных системах Южного 
федерального университета (протокол № 6 от 17 января 2020 г.) 

Рецензенты: 

доктор философских наук, профессор, заведующий кафедрой 

философии Института управления в экономических, экологических и 
социальных системах Южного федерального университета И. В. Лысак 

доктор философских наук, профессор, заслуженный работник 

высшей школы Российской Федерации, заведующий кафедрой философии 
и мировых религий Донского государственного технического университета 

Е. Е. Несмеянов 

Папченко, Е. В. 

П179      Methodology of Scientific and Project Activities : учебное пособие 

для обучающихся в магистратуре / Е. В. Папченко, Т. А. Нечаева ; 
Южный федеральный университет. – Ростов-на-Дону ; Таганрог : 
Издательство Южного федерального университета, 2020. – 105 с. 

ISBN 978-5-9275-3725-9 

Предлагаемое вниманию читателей учебное пособие представляет собой 

систематическое изложение современных моделей роста научного знания. В нем 
анализируются модель роста научного знания К. Поппера, методология 
исследовательских программ И. Лакатоса, структура научных революций 
Т. Куна, 
методологический 
анархизм 
П. Фейерабенда, 
эволюционная 

эпистемология Ст. Тулмина. В работе рассматриваются основные формы бытия 
науки, классификация приемов и методов научного исследования в соотнесении 
с формами знания (фактами, гипотезой, теорией). В пособии уделяется внимание 
визуализации представленного материала. 

УДК 1:001(075.8)+001.89(075.8) 

ББК 87.25я73+72.4я73 

ISBN 978-5-9275-3725-9 
 
 
© Южный федеральный университет, 2020 
© Папченко Е. В., Нечаева Т. А., 2020 
© Оформление. Макет. Издательство  
    Южного федерального университета, 2020 

 

 

CONTENT 

 

Topic 1. BASIC FORMS OF BEING OF SCIENCE ............................................. 4 

1. Science as a cognitive activity ................................................................................ 4 

2. Science as a system of developing knowledge ...................................................... 10 

3. Science as a social institution ............................................................................... 13 

Control unit .............................................................................................................. 20 

Main sources ............................................................................................................ 20 

Additional sources .................................................................................................... 20 

Topic 2. SPECIFICITY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE ................................ 22 

1. Forms of scientific knowledge: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis, theory ......... 22 

2. Techniques and methods of scientific research ..................................................... 39 

Control unit .............................................................................................................. 49 

Main sources ............................................................................................................ 49 

Additional sources .................................................................................................... 49 

Topic 3. MODELS OF THE GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE...... 51 

1. The growth of scientific knowledge in the model of K. Popper ............................ 51 

2. Methodology of research programs I. Lakatos ...................................................... 59 

3. The structure of scientific revolutions T. Kuhn ..................................................... 65 

4. Methodological anarchism of P. Feyerabend ........................................................ 73 

5. Evolutionary Epistemology of St. Tulmin ............................................................ 85 

Control unit .............................................................................................................. 94 

Main sources ............................................................................................................ 94 

Additional sources .................................................................................................... 94 

GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................ 97 

 

Topic 1. BASIC FORMS OF BEING OF SCIENCE 

1. Science as a cognitive activity. 
2. Science as a system of developing knowledge. 
3. Science as a social institution. 

1. Science as a cognitive activity 

The attitude of a person has toward science is a multidimensional problem, 

among which the most often asked question is: what does science give to a 
person? But this is not all. We are challenged in other ways too. Does the person 
shape the science or does the science inform our understanding of the world? 
While raw scientific results are correct, can the human interpretation of them be 
biased or inaccurate? Just because we can investigate a particular scientific 
question, does that mean we necessarily should? Answering these questions 
potentially points to improvements in living conditions, the success of 
technological progress, and in medicine, just to name a few. Human needs are 
growing, and their comfort is provided or by new scientific achievements. 
However, at the same time, the dangers that arise from the use of scientific 
knowledge are also recognized. This, for instance, might include the production 
of weapons of mass destruction, be they biological or explosive. There may be a 
dark side to the pursuit of science. 

Quite often, there are perspectives which may threaten human life and 

livelihood. But is may also bring about much good. Science can change not only 
the way people live, but also the person himself. Of course, it is impossible and 
unnecessary to stop scientific research, but we must be aware of the possible 
dangers associated with it. Science alone does not provide a remedy for these 
dangers. 

Science, as a special type of human activity, aimesat understanding the 

surrounding reality It can be a complex phenomenon. Decoupling science from 
its action or activity, we must also recognize science as a special sphere of 
human cognitive activity. It has a specific feature that distinguishes it from other 
forms of cognitive activity. In analyzing science, we should take into 
consideration the existing institutionalization in the society. Thus, science is as 
an important social institution. institution. Science is a special sphere of human 
culture if we consider it as a special type of human activity in culture. 

1. Science as a cognitive activity 

5 

In one of its most important forms, the processes of engaging in science is 

a cognitive activity. Scientific knowledge of the world reflects human needs and 
is driven by human curiosity. Its origin is in ordinary, spontaneous-empirical 
knowledge. It is the process of which a person masters the essence and properties 
of those objects that he used in everyday life. We’re talking about logic and the 
testing of theories. The result of such spontaneous empirical knowledge was 
knowledge based on ordinary experience and common sense. However, as 
human society was developing, at times human knowledge overcame the 
boundaries of common sense, which became unable to solve problems that went 
beyond the scope of everyday experience. As a result, knowledge and the 
application of it, having emerged from practice, gradually began to outstrip it in 
the development of objects of the surrounding reality. Science is a special 
cognitive activity. Instead of a simple study of the essence and properties of 
objects, phenomena, and processes, it proceeds to construct theoretical models 
using abstract and ideal theoretical objects. The validity of the theoretical model 
is proved not so much directly by practice, but by a specially developed 
experimental scientific method. Logical consequences derived from empirically 
verifiable statements about the theoretical model are directly aligned with the 
results of the experiments performed. The results of such experiments are used to 
prove whether the theoretical model corresponds to reality or not. In order to 
verify the validity of theoretical models in science, special theoretical and 
empirical methods are used (they will be discussed later) as well as a variety of 
material and technical tools of modern science. Observation, measurement and 
complex experimental equipment among others. The existence of a special 
methodology that allows science to test its conclusions in relation to objects that 
have not yet been mastered in modern social practice, distinguishes science from 
other types of cognitive activity. In addition, among the main specifying features 
of science as a cognitive activity, it is also necessary to indicate the orientation to 
the objective nature of the regularities of the matter studied. The discovery of the 
objective laws of reality, made through science and due to its essentialist 
orientation, it makes possible for science to both explain the surrounding reality 
and predict the most complex processes of its development. Science can discover 
un known phenomena. It does scientific forecasts and addresses scenarios which 
contribute to human adaptation to changing environmental conditions. It is 
important for predicting earthquakes, calculating the trajectory of small celestial 
bodies and others. Thus, among the most important properties of science as a 

Topic 1. Basic forms of being of science 

6 

cognitive activity are objectivity and focusing on the discovery of new 
phenomena and processes. It is necessary to point out the general significance of 
the conclusions obtained by science, their inter – subjectivity, and the 
fundamental reproducibility of the conclusions obtained in and by science. 

However, appreciating the potential part of science as a cognitive activity, 

it is necessary to recognize that a purely objective approach to knowledge of the 
reality is not absolute and it is possible only while studying certain aspects of the 
field. It is necessary to recognize the subjective side of human nature, including 
emotions, agendas and motivation. As a result, alongside with scientific methods 
of cognition, other principles, techniques and methods that are called extra-
scientific in modern literature can be used in human cognitive activity. 

 

Schema 1.1 

BASIC FORMS OF BEING OF SCIENCE 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

BASIC FORMS 

OF BEING OF SCIENCE

Science 

as a cognitive activity

Science as a system of 

developing knowledge

Science 

as a social institution

1. Science as a cognitive activity 

7 

Schema 1.2 

 

FUNCTIONS OF SCIENCE 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                        
 
 
 
 
 
                                      
 
 
 
 
 
                                 
 
 
                                
 
                                 
                                 
 
                               

FUNCTIONS OF SCIENCE

1. Cultural and ideological 

function of science

2 Cognitive function of science

3. Technological function 

of science

4. Science as a factor 

of social regulation

5. The projective-constructive

function of science

Science ‒ is a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing 
objective, systemically organized and grounded knowledge about the world. 
The definition of science is supplemented by a new image of science, which 
seeks to identify a different hypostasis of science – science as a social 
institution that ensures the functioning of scientific cognitive activity.

Topic 1. Basic forms of being of science 

8 

                               Schema 1.3 

 

THE MAIN STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

THE MAIN STAGES 

OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE

1. The genesis of science.

3. Formation of the first forms of theoretical science in 
antiquity.

4. Medieval science.

5. New time and the formation of experimental science; 
science in the proper sense of the word:

6. Formation of science as a professional activity. 
The emergence of the disciplinary organized science.

2. Pre-science.

‒ classical natural science and 
its methodology;

‒ revolution in natural science 
of the XIX‒XX centuries and 
the formation of ideas and 
methods 
of 
non-classical 

science.

7. Formation of technical sciences.

1. Science as a cognitive activity 

9 

Schema 1.4 

 

SCIENCE: REGULARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT 

(based on V. P. Kokhanovsky, T. G. Leshkevich, T. P. Matyash, T. B. Fathi) 
 
 
 
 
 
               
 
 
 
                
 
 
 
                
 
 
                
 
 
                
 
 
               
 
 
 
               
 
 
               
 

SCIENCE: REGULARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT

Сontinuity in the development of science

Unity of quantitative and qualitative changes in the development 
of science

Tendencies of differentiation and integration of Sciences

Interaction methods

The interaction of science

A distinct expansion processes of mathematization and 
computerization

Further theorization of science and penetration of dialectization

High rates of science development

Openness to criticism, elimination of monopolies, the prohibition 
of dogmatism

Topic 1. Basic forms of being of science 

10 

2. Science as a system of developing knowledge 

Considering science as a system of developing knowledge, we should refer 

to the work of V.J. Kelle «Science as a phenomenon of culture». Не says that 
«science as a system of developing knowledge differs from all cultural 
phenomena primarily in the idea that its content is objective truth, i.e. that the 
content of scientific knowledge does not depend on a person, on humanity. This 
knowledge reveals the objective world, its laws and properties, its connections 
and relationships». At the same time, the content of scientific knowledge does 
not depend on the «randomness» of its origin, on the conditions in which it 
appeared, on the nature of its future application in public practice. Considering it 
this way, we do not relate it to the subject, but only to the object. Only the form 
of expressing knowledge is subjective, but not the content. Since the goal of 
science is truth, which is independent of human content, science strives to 
exclude subjective aspects from the content of scientific knowledge as 
completely as possible. 

Phenomenologically, science exists in the society, so it is included in the 

system of a historically defined culture interacting with its various components. 
The significance of the socio-cultural form of knowledge representation is the 
following: it should be a means of integrating scientific knowledge into the 
existing system of culture. One of the features of the Ancient Egypt culture was 
the existence of pre-science. It was characterized by subordination to some needs 
(in mathematics it is measurement and counting; the compilation of calendars 
and the maintenance of religious cults – astronomy, technical improvements in 
tools of production and construction and mechanics, etc.); the empirical nature of 
the origin of knowledge, as well as caste and closeness of the scientific 
community. 

Only the ancient Greek culture contributed to the development of the 

theoretical form of knowledge representation. Ancient Greek philosophers 
greatly contributed to the transfer of scientific knowledge from the East to 
Ancient Greece, which significantly advanced the ancient Greek education and 
culture. A. S. Nadtochaev emphasizes that an: «It also created the prerequisites 
for its further independent development. However, the Milesian thinkers not only 
assimilated and made available to the Greeks the foundations of scientific 
knowledge developed by the more culturally developed peoples of the East, but 

2. Science as a system of developing knowledge 

11 

also significantly enriched them with their own achievements. They enriched 
such areas of scientific knowledge as geometry, astronomy, cosmogony, 
geography, biology, etc»1. The Milesian philosophers deserve special 
consideration. They were the first to formulate a number of scientific 
propositions in a general theoretical form; to develop general scientific concepts. 
Therefore, it was the beginning of transformation of science into a form of 
theoretical science. 

As V. J. Kelle notes, the theoretical form cannot be separated from the 

content of scientific knowledge2. The form has a certain content, which, being 
integrated with the form into the system of culture becomes a factor of cultural 
development of influence and development. Thus, the change of fundamental 
scientific theories becomes not only scientific, but also ideological and gets the 
general cultural significance (for example, the theory of relativity, quantum 
mechanics, molecular biology, etc.). 

Both in the form of knowledge representation in the society and in its 

content, science as a cultural phenomenon appeals to a person, enriches his 
spiritual world, thereby causing his own development. However, science is not 
only a system of knowledge, but also a form of spiritual production associated 
with obtaining new knowledge. Moreover, if the content of knowledge does not 
reflect the conditions of its origin, then cognitive activity, its capabilities, its 
success, and its character depend on these conditions, including the culture of a 
given society, which sets the general way of seeing reality of a particular 
historical epoch. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

1  Nadtochaev A. S. Philosophy and Science in Antiquity. – Moscow: Publishing house 

of Moscow State University. 1990. – P. 26–31. 

2  Kelle V. Z. Science as a cultural phenomenon // Science and culture / 

Ed. V. Z. Kelle. – Moscow, 1984.