Н.Д. Овчинникова
Е.В. Сачкова

ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ
АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
Теория и практика

LECTURES
ON ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
Theory and Practice

Учебник

Москва
Издательство «ФЛИНТА»
2021

УДК 81.111’373(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1-3я73
О-35

Авто р ы:
Овчинникова Наталья Дмитриевна ― доцент, канд. филол. наук,
доцент кафедры «Русский и иностранные языки»
Академии базовой подготовки Российского университета транспорта (МИИТ);
Сачкова Елена Владимировна ― доцент, канд. филол. наук,
доцент кафедры «Лингвистика» Института экономики и финансов
Российского университета транспорта (МИИТ)
Ре це нзе нты:
доцент, канд. филол. наук, доцент кафедры «Фонетики и лексики
английского языка», Института иностранных языков
Московского педагогического государственного университета М.А. Кузина;
канд. филол. наук, приглашенный преподаватель кафедры немецкого языка
Департамента иностранных языков Национального исследовательского
университета «Высшая школа экономики» Ю.В. Романченко

Овчинникова Н.Д.
О-35 
Лексикология английского языка. Теория и практика = Lectures

on English Lexicology: Theory and Practice : учебник / Н.Д. Овчинникова, 
Е.В. Сачкова. — Москва : ФЛИНТА, 2021. — 160 с. — 
ISBN 978-5-9765-4824-4. — Текст : электронный.

Данный учебник разработан в соответствии с требованиями ФГОС 
ВО. Учебник включает основные сведения о лексикологии как разделе 
языкознания, 
семантике, 
этимологическом 
составе 
современного 
английского 
языка, 
словообразовании 
и 
фразеологии, полисемии, 
синонимии и антонимии, стилистической дифференциации словарного 
состава английского языка.
Учебник предлагается для преподавания основ лексикологии современного 
английского языка студентам очной формы обучения при 
подготовке 
по 
направлению 
45.03.02 
«Лингвистика», 
программе 
дополнительного профессионального образования и профессиональной 
переподготовки «Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации», а 
также для всех, кто интересуется теорией языка.

УДК 81.111’373(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1-3я73
ISBN 978-5-9765-4824-4 
© Овчинникова Н.Д., Сачкова Е.В., 2021
© Издательство «ФЛИНТА», 2021

CONTENTS

Preface  ...............................................................................................................6

Lecture 1. Lexicology as a Branch of Linguistics  .........................................7
1.1. The subject of lexicological investigation ...........................................7
1.2. Types of vocabulary units ....................................................................7
1.3. The position of lexicology in the language hierarchy.
Links with other linguistic sciences .....................................................8
1.4. Branches of lexicology ........................................................................8

Lecture 2. A Word as the Basic Unit of Lexicology  ....................................10
2.1. The defi nition of a word and its basic characteristics ........................10
2.2. The theory of a word ..........................................................................10
2.3. The morphemic structure of a word ...................................................12

Lecture 3. English Etymology  ......................................................................16
3.1. The problems of English etymology ..................................................16
3.2. The Native Component (NC) .............................................................17
3.3. The Borrowed Component (BC) .......................................................19
3.4. Problems of borrowings .....................................................................22
3.5. Assimilation as a result of the pressure of the Native Core ...............26

Lecture 4. Word-building in Modern English  ............................................34
4.1. The origin of word-building (WB) as a means of secondary
nomination .........................................................................................34
4.2. The notion of a word-building pattern (WBP) as a two-facet
linguistic unit .....................................................................................35
4.3. Productivity of word-building patterns ..............................................36
4.4. The basic types of word-building in present day English ..................37

Lecture 5. Lexical Meaning as a Linguistic Category  ...............................48
5.1. Language meaning: lexical (LM) and grammatical meaning
(GM) ..................................................................................................48
5.2. The defi nition of lexical meaning according to the referential
approach .............................................................................................48
5.3. Componental structure of lexical meaning ........................................50
5.4. Development of new meanings: causes, semantic process,
result ..................................................................................................54

Lecture 6. Polysemy as a Means of Secondary Nomination  ......................58
6.1. The nature of polysemy .....................................................................58

6.2. A lexico-semantic variant (LSV), its notion ......................................59
6.3. Types of lexico-semantic variants ......................................................60

Lecture 7. Types of Modern English Homonymy  ......................................62
7.1. The defi nition of homonyms ..............................................................62
7.2. The origin of homonyms ...................................................................62
7.3. Classifi cation of homonyms ..............................................................65

Lecture 8. Problems of English Synonyms and Antonyms  ........................67
8.1. The defi nition of synonyms ...............................................................67
8.2. Criteria of synonymy .........................................................................68
8.3. Types of synonyms ............................................................................70
8.4. The dominant synonym. Euphemisms ...............................................70
8.5. Antonymy: defi nition, criteria, classifi cation .....................................72

Lecture 9. Phraseology  .................................................................................80
9.1. Phraseological units as word groups with transferred meanings .......80
9.2. Causes of phraseological units ...........................................................81
9.3. Principles of classifi cation .................................................................83

Lecture 10. Stylistic Classifi cation of the English Vocabulary  ..................91
10.1. Stylistic сlassifi cation ........................................................................91
10.2. The literary vocabulary ......................................................................93
10.3. The colloquial vocabulary .................................................................94

TOTAL CHECKUP  ....................................................................................100

APPENDIX 1  ...............................................................................................103
 
Lexicon  ...................................................................................................103
 
Lexemes  .................................................................................................103
 
What Counts as a Word?  ........................................................................105
 
The Structure of Words  ..........................................................................106
 
The Table of the Most Common English Suffi xes  .................................107
 
The Sources of the Lexicon ....................................................................110
 
Borrowing  ..............................................................................................112
 
Lexical Twins and Triplets  .....................................................................124
 
57 Varieties of Prefi xes  ...........................................................................125
 
Anglo-Compound-o-Matics  ...................................................................128
 
Semi-Affi xes  ..........................................................................................129
 
The Loaded Lexicon  ..............................................................................132
 
Connotative Functions  ...........................................................................133
 
Snarling and Purring  ..............................................................................134

Colour Vitamins  .....................................................................................135
 
Polysemy  ................................................................................................137
 
Homograph  .............................................................................................139
 
Homonym  ...............................................................................................139
 
Homophone  ............................................................................................140
 
Synonym  ................................................................................................140
 
Taboo  ......................................................................................................141
 
Antonym  .................................................................................................143
 
Hyponym  ................................................................................................144
 
Phraseological Units ...............................................................................145
 
Style ........................................................................................................148
 
The Common Core  .................................................................................152
 
APPENDIX 2  ...............................................................................................154
Keys to Practical Assignments  ...............................................................154

Bibliography  .................................................................................................157

PREFACE
Why to study Lexicology?

Once professor Snape said: “You are here to learn the subtle science 
and exact art of potionmaking. As there is little foolish wand-waving 
here, many of you will hardly believe this is magic. I don’t expect you 
will really understand the beauty of the softly simmering cauldron with 
its shimmering fumes, the delicate power of liquids that creep through 
human veins, bewitching the mind, ensnaring the senses... I can teach 
you how to bottle fame, brew glory, even stopper death...”1

We may say the same about a word. By using words we may 
bewitch the mind, ensnare the sense, cure the heart and kill a broken 
soul. By using words we may bewitch, enchant and bemuse, we may 
persuade and convince. With words we may bottle wrath, brew glory 
to an obscure and even stop death.
And the science which teaches what word to use, what a word 
means and where it comes from is Lexicology. If one day you want 
to know why simmer is not the same as shimmer and completely 
different from shiver, Lexicology gives you an answer.
This book is intended primarily for the English language students 
who major in Linguistics and, generally, for all those people, who 
want to master the English language.
The book contains information on the etymology of the English 
word stock, crucial problems of word meaning, word-building 
and phraseological units. It also concerns the issues of polysemy, 
synonymy and antonymy as well as the stylistic peculiarities of the 
English vocabulary.
The information presented in Appendix will enlarge your scope 
of knowledge on the given topics.
We want to express our sincere gratitude to M.D. Rezvetsova, 
professor at Moscow Pedagogical State University who taught to 
love and to value a WORD.
Authors

1 From J.K. Rowling “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s stone”.

Lecture 1. LEXICOLOGY
AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS

1.1. The subject of lexicological investigation

Linguistics in its totality deals with the study of human language as 
the subject of its investigation. Language is an extremely complicated 
phenomenon with a lot of properties and characteristics. For the 
purpose of thorough examination it is decomposed into relatively 
independent spheres to be studied by phonology, morphology, syntax, 
lexicology, history of the language, stylistics, etc.
The term ‘lexicology’ is derived from 2 Greek roots (lexis — 
word, logos — learning).
The vocabulary of a language, the word-stock is studied by 
lexicology whose main task is to present the vocabulary as a system.
The term ‘system’ denotes a whole made up of interdependent 
elements of the same nature which are related in certain specifi c ways. 
Unlike grammar and phonetics which are closed systems vocabulary is 
an open one which is subjected to constant changes in the number and 
properties of units. This peculiarity of vocabulary makes some scholars 
doubt its systematic character. They look upon it as chaotic. To this 
however there is a strong objection: there is an objective connection 
between words and real objects they nominate, i.e., the systematic 
character of objective reality is bemirrored in the system of language. 
So, vocabulary can be said to be a loose system, not a mathematically 
organized collection of elements which are interdependent and derive 
their signifi cance from the system as a whole.

1.2. Types of vocabulary units

The lexical units are two-facet elements possessing form and 
meaning. These are morphemes, words and set expressions.
Morphemes are parts of words into which words may be 
analysed and set expressions are groups of words with completely 

or partially transferred meanings into which words may be 
combined.
The word is the association of a particular meaning with a 
particular group of sounds, capable of a particular grammatical 
employment, characterized by a positional mobility and indivisibility, 
capable of functioning alone.
In Russian linguistics the word is taken for the basic vocabulary 
unit.

1.3. The position of lexicology in the language hierarchy. 
Links with other linguistic sciences

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. Neither linguistic theory, 
nor linguistic practice can do without it. The word is studied in 
several branches of linguistics and not in lexicology only and 
the latter, in its turn, is closely connected with general linguistics, 
history of the language, phonetics, stylistics, grammar, etc.

Lexicology and phonetics: phonemes participate in signifi cation: 
they serve to distinguish between meanings: e.g., set — sat, did — 
deed.

Lexicology and grammar: on the one hand, words belong 
to some part of speech and have some lexico-grammatical 
characteristics of the word class to which they belong. On the other 
hand, the grammatical form and function of the word affect its 
lexical meaning: e.g., to read — read — reading.

Lexicology and stylistics: stylistics studies the problems of 
meaning, connotations, synonymy, functional styles and other issues.

1.4. Branches of lexicology

Lexicology includes such branches as:
1. General lexicology: is occupied with the general study of 
words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specifi c features of any 
particular 1anguage.

2. Special lexicology: deals with the description of the 
characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given 1anguage.
3. Contrastive lexicology: compares and describes the 
vocabularies of different languages.
4. Historical lexicology or etymology: studies the evolution of 
vocabulary.
5. Descriptive 
lexicology: 
describes 
morphological 
and 
semantic structures of a word at a given stage of its development.
6. Sociolinguistics: studies relations between the way the 
1anguage works and develops, on the one hand, and the facts of 
social life, on the other.
7. Semaciology: specializes in the semantic studies of a word.
8. Phraseology: specializes in word groups characterized by 
stability of structure and transferred meaning.

For more information read Appendix 1. Lexicon and Lexemes.

Lecture 2. A WORD AS THE BASIC UNIT
OF LEXICOLOGY

2.1. The defi nition of a word and its basic characteristics

To give the defi nition of a word is one of the most diffi cult tasks 
in linguistics, because the simplest word has many different aspects. It 
has a sound form being a certain arrangement of phonemes; it has its 
morphological structure being a certain arrangement of morphemes; 
when used in actual speech it may occur in different word forms, 
have different syntactic functions and signal various meanings.
In linguistics a word has been defi ned syntactically, semantically, 
phonologically and by combining different approaches.
E.g., It has been syntactically defi ned as “the minimum sentence” 
by H. Sweet and much later by L. Bloomfi eld as “the minimum free 
form”.
A word should possess some characteristics which distinguish it 
from other 1anguage units:

● indivisibility — nothing can be inserted between its 
elements;

● positional mobility — it’s positionally mobile;

● uninterruptability — it’s internally stable in terms of the 
order of the component morphemes.
Taking into account all these characteristics we may conclude 
that a word is the smallest signifi cant unit of a given 1anguage 
capable of functioning alone and characterized by positional mobility 
within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability and semantic 
integrity.

2.2. The theory of a word

The fi rst problem any science is to solve is that of its basic units. 
To solve this problem we result from the purposes of language as a 

tool of communication. As language refl ects notions the basic unit of 
lexicology must be capable of carrying content (information about 
reality).
The theory of a word was introduced in the mid-50s by Professor 
A.I. Smirnitsky. In it he argued the basic status of a word as the 
smallest vocabulary unit, pointing out the major properties of a word 
and its differences from the other types of vocabulary units.
The essence of the issue is summed up in 2 problems:

● the size of unit problem,

● the identity of unit problem.
In the vocabulary we fi nd 3 types of units one of which to be 
recognized as basic should possess 2 obligatory purposes:

● to name an object (nominative function),

● to be able to take part in the construction of a sentence to 
make communication possible (communicative function).
Professor A.I. Smirnitsky compared the 3 types of vocabulary 
units (a morpheme, a word, a phrase) to select the one to meet 
these two criteria: nominative and communicative functions. By 
comparison he isolated a word as the basic unit for the following 
reasons.
A morpheme is a carrier of only one type of language meaning 
either lexical or grammatical or word-building, it is the smallest 
meaningful unit but incapable of functioning in a sentence. A phrase is 
both meaningful and functional but cannot be accepted as the smallest 
one being a word combination. In such a way a word is the basic 
vocabulary unit. It’s only a word that combines both types of meaning 
(lexical and grammatical) and is the smallest one for that matter. This 
solution was achieved within the framework of the fi rst problem.
Examination of a word’s behaviour shows that it’s a variable unit 
whose both planes are subject to deviation. This objective fact was 
taken by Professor A.I. Smirnitsky into consideration and studied 
within the framework of the second problem: what is the extent to 
which a word may vary in both planes to remain the same unit (to 
retain its identity). He produced a classifi cation of types of variation 
of a word.

Types of variation of a word:
1. phonetic variants (slightly different in sound shape).
E.g., Compare the variants of pronunciation of the words: often, 
direct, nephew.
2. morphemic variants / word-building:
Poetic — poetical,
Lyric — lyrical.
3. morphological variants (one and the same grammatical form 
can be expressed by different grammatical means): learnt — learned, 
spoilt — spoiled.
4. lexico-semantic variants (LSV) (numerous related meanings 
making up a polysemantic word). LSV is a separate meaning of a 
polysemantic word related to its other meanings due to a common 
semantic component present in the meaning of all LSVs.

2.3. The morphemic structure of a word

A word consists of morphemes which can be defi ned as the 
smallest meaningful units which have a sound form and meaning, 
and which occur in speech only as a part of a word.
Morphemes 
are 
subdivided 
into 
root-morphemes 
and 
affi xational morphemes. The root morpheme is the lexical centre of 
the word while the affi xational morpheme is a structurally important 
element of a word. In many cases it adds the part of speech meaning.
e.g., dark — darkness, care — careful — careless.

According to their position affi xational morphemes are divided 
into prefi xes, suffi xes and infi xes.

According to their ability to function alone morphemes are 
divided into free and bound. Free morphemes may occur in isolation 
and coincide with word forms:
e.g., blackberry.

Bound morphemes are not found in isolation:
e.g., manlyness.

There are groups of words in which it is by no means easy to 
single out morphemes because what looks like a root morpheme has 
no meaning of its own:
e.g., perceive, deceive, conceive, receive.

Such morphemes are called pseudo-morphemes.
Root morphemes (ill, monger, half) are on their way to becoming 
affi xational morphemes:
e.g., fi shmonger’s, newsmonger’s, ill-tempered, ill-mannered, ill-
bread.

They are semi-affi xes.

The relationship between the two classifi cations of morphemes 
discussed above can be graphically presented in the following diagram:

For more information read Appendix 1. What counts as a word? 
and The structure of words, The table of the most common English 
suffi xes, 57 varieties of prefi xes, semi-affi xes.

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT

1. Find a word with an infl ection:

worker, darkness, books, rewrite

2. Find a word with a derivational affi x:

night, heartless, Ivanov’s, papers