Nuclear technology: history, state and technical challenges of nuclear power development

В.М. МУРОГОВ

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY 

HISTORY, STATE AND TECHNICAL 
CHALLENGES OF NUCLEAR POWER 

DEVELOPMENT

Монография

Москва

ИНФРА-М

2019

V.M. MUROGOV

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY 

HISTORY, STATE AND TECHNICAL 
CHALLENGES OF NUCLEAR POWER 

DEVELOPMENT

Monograph

Moscow
INFRA-M

2019

УДК 621.039(075.4)
ББК 31.4

М91

Автор:

В.М. Мурогов — профессор, директор Международного 

центра 
ядерного 
образования 
(Национальный 

исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ»)

Рецензенты:

Б.М. Тулинов — кандидат наук, директор Института 

международных 
отношений 
НРНУ 
(Национальный 

исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ»);

В.П. Рухло — кандидат наук, консультант МАГАТЭ

Мурогов В.М.

М91
Nuclear technology: history, state and technical challenges 

of nuclear power development : монография / В.М. Мурогов. —
М. : ИНФРА-М, 2019. — 123 с.

ISBN 978-5-16-107748-1 (online)

Данный курс лекций был подготовлен научной группой под 

руководством профессора В.М. Мурогова в рамках программы 
«Ответственная наука» с использованием опубликованных материалов: 
самостоятельно и любезно предоставлено МАГАТЭ и другими 
организациями.

Для научных работников и специалистов в области ядерных 

технологий.

УДК 621.039(075.4)

ББК 31.4

ISBN 978-5-16-107748-1 (online)
© Мурогов В.М., 2019

ФЗ № 
436-ФЗ

Издание 
не 
подлежит 
маркировке 

в соответствии с п. 1 ч. 2 ст. 1

Author:

V.M. Murogov — Professor, director International Center 

of Nuclear Education (National Research Nuclear University 
MEPhI)

Reviewers:

B.M. Tulinov — PhD, director Institute International Relations 

NRNU (National Research Nuclear University MEPhI);

V.P. Rukhlo — PhD, IAEA consultant

Murogov V.M.

Nuclear technology: history, state and technical challenges 

of nuclear power development : monograph / V.M. Murogov. — М. 
: INFRA-M, 2019. — 123 p.

ISBN 978-5-16-107748-1 (online)

This Course of Lectures  was prepared by the Scientific Team under 

Leadership of Prof. V.M. Murogov  in the framework Program  “Responsible 
Science“  with the use of published materials: their own and kindly provided 
by IAEA  and other organizations.

For scientists and specialists in the field of nuclear technology.

ISBN 978-5-16-107748-1 (online)
© Murogov V.M., 2019

CONTENTS

PART I  CURRENT STATUS AND INTERNAL CONTRADICTION  OF 
TRADITIONAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................8
I.1. Structure, of power generation and consumption of energy resources: Global, regional 
and national overview. Contradictions of the requirements of energy security and current 
situation in the world: Needs for development of the new industrial and sustainable sources 
of energy..................................................................................................................................9

I.1.1. The status of global power industry................................................................10
I.1.2. Ecological aspects of hydrocarbon energy .....................................................13
I.1.3. The prospects for energy development...........................................................15

I.2. Concept of sustainable energy development. Indicators for sustainable development. 
United Nation Programme Agenda 21 and its requirements.................................................17

I.2.1. Concept of sustainable energy development ..................................................17
I.2.2. Indicators for sustainable development............................................................19
I.2.3. United Nation Programme Agenda 21 and its requirements ..........................22

PART II  CURRENT STATUS AND MODERN PROBLEM  FOR FULL-SCALE 
DEVELOPMENT NUCLEAR POWER...............................................................................25
II.1. Introduction: Current status of nuclear power development. Role of nuclear energy for 
development: industrial and developing country ..................................................................26

II.1.1. Current status of nuclear power development...............................................26
II.1.2. Role of nuclear energy for development: industrial and developing country30

II.2. History of the development nuclear science and technology, nuclear power and nuclear 
fuel cycle technology.............................................................................................................34

II.2.1. Basic stages in the history of nuclear science ...............................................34
II.2.2. The first commercial use of nuclear energy ..................................................38
II.2.3. Milestones in the history of nuclear energy science and technology ............42
II.2.4. Brief information about outstanding scientists..............................................44

II.3. History, current status and future prospects of nuclear power development in the major 
nuclear countries: Western Europe, USA, the former Soviet Union and Russian Federation48

II.3.1. Nuclear power in Western European countries.............................................48
II.3.2. Nuclear power in the USA ............................................................................55
II.3.3. Nuclear power in Russia................................................................................60

II.4. History, current status and future prospects of nuclear power development in Asia ....65

II.4.1. Nuclear power in China.................................................................................65
II.4.2. Nuclear programme in India..........................................................................69
II.4.3. Nuclear Power Development in Asia ............................................................72

II.5. Nuclear fuel cycle: fuel supply, enrichment, and reprocessing, open and closed fuel 
cycle, waste disposal .............................................................................................................74

II.5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................74
II.5.2. NFC technology components ........................................................................74
II.5.3. Global infrastructure of NFC.........................................................................75
II.5.4. Requirements to NFC....................................................................................77
II.5.6. NFC internationalization ...............................................................................79

II.6. Non-power applications of nuclear medicine, agriculture, industry, desalination, 
heating and others..................................................................................................................82

II.6.1. Research reactors...........................................................................................82
II.6.2. Non-electric application of nuclear technologies..........................................84
II.6.3. Radioisotopes in medicine.............................................................................86

II.6.4. Radioisotopes in industry ..............................................................................88
II.6.5. Non-electric applications of nuclear energy..................................................91

II.7. Role of international cooperation in nuclear science and technology development and 
international nuclear organizations: IAEA, WNA, WANO, OECD–NEA and others .........94

II.7.1. Some stages of international initiatives on the peaceful use of nuclear energy94
II.7.2. International Initiatives on non-proliferation and use of nuclear weapon.....96
II.7.3. Key international organizations related to the peaceful use of nuclear energy97
II.7.4. International initiatives on the development of innovative nuclear energy 

systems.............................................................................................................................107

II.7.5. The need for global cooperation..................................................................114

PART III  CONCLUSION..................................................................................................116
III.1. Energy security and role of nuclear power for sustainable development of the planet117

III.1.1. Challenges and contradictions of nuclear energy development.................117
III.1.2. Social–political and economical aspects of nuclear energy development .120
III.1.3. Nuclear culture...........................................................................................121
III.1.4. NPP and NFC of the future — International Scientific and Technical 

Cooperation .....................................................................................................................122

INTRODUCTION

The Multimedia Course “SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CHALLENGES IN 

NUCLEAR POWER DEVELOPMENT” consists of textbook of lectures (10 lectures, 
approx. 120 pages), 10 presentations (approx. 800 slides), and reference video materials in
English (approx. 30 DVD).

The Multimedia Course is nonstandard discipline which is not available at normal 

university lectures. It helps students understand the objectives and background of the 
nuclear science and technology development in depth and foster logical thinking capability 
through various analysis, comparison and case studies. Latest information about innovative 
technology under development and international cooperation in progress gives the students 
clear and dynamic picture of the nuclear industry and international scheme.

This course of lectures was developed based on flash-technology and includes a set of

multimedia flash-presentations with video clips, animation, audios, interactive control
elements (zooming-in pictures, highlighting of some fragments in the presentation, etc.).

This technology was chosen due to the fact that the information prepared can be used

on any programmable platform, which supposes a correct operation of the application 
regardless of the operating system and the availability of special-purpose software. The
versatility and availability are the main advantages of flash–technology, which allow the 
creation of cross-platforms, stable running and protected software products that represent 
an up-to-date high-effective fail-safe support for education process. Moreover, the potential
of this course of lectures provides the basis for subsequent preparation of courses for 
distance education.

The presentation is commanded (paging, exit to menu, printing, slideshow mode) 

using the control buttons located in the upper left corner and on the control panel as well as 
using the key buttons (PgUp, PgDn). The pictures being highlighted in yellow by pointing 
with mouse can be zoomed in with a mouse click.

Video clips and audios can be activated by starting the corresponding player.
Provision is made for highlighting certain fragments on slide. To do this, it is

necessary to draw a curved line on slide by pressing the left mouse button. The line will
remain on slide until you exit the presentation. The line can be deleted by pressing the 
delete button.

At the end of each presentation there is a set of video clips on lecture subject. The

user (lecturer) may replace video clips, if necessary. To do this, the video files in the folder 
with a particular lecture should be replaced. Video files are in FLV–format.

Part I

CURRENT STATUS AND INTERNAL CONTRADICTION 

OF TRADITIONAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

I.1. STRUCTURE, OF POWER GENERATION AND CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY 
RESOURCES: GLOBAL, REGIONAL AND NATIONAL OVERVIEW. 
CONTRADICTIONS OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF ENERGY SECURITY AND 
CURRENT SITUATION IN THE WORLD: NEEDS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
NEW INDUSTRIAL AND SUSTAINABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Sufficient power supply is required for normal economic performance, and the energy 

shortage is a constraining factor of sustainable energy development. An empirical relation is 
well known: in order to provide an increment of 1% in gross national product it is necessary 
to provide an increase from 0.5 to 1.5% in energy production and consumption. Energy 
consumption is a derivative of economic range and level of national socio-economic 
development.

Ensuring the humankind with energy requires energy resources and technologies for 

converting them into end-use energy. Energy resources and demand are unevenly 
distributed around the world depending on geological and geographical features of a 
particular country. The global economic development is therefore effected due to active 
world trade of energy resources, which provides necessary flows from resource-excess to 
resource-shortage regions.

One key tendency should be noted towards the use of energy resources in the history 

of mankind caused by the need for increase in labor efficiency. As the industrial and 
technogenic civilization advanced, there occurred the transition to the use of more 
concentrated energy sources, which was characteristic of the power industry as well as for 
the human activity as a whole. This is best reflected in the development of defense 
technology. At the same time the process takes place that is caused by the increase in power 
density, which is logically associated with the necessity of growth of unit ratings of power 
plants (Fig. I.1).

These tendencies have been responsible to a certain degree for the change in primary 

energy source over the past 150 years:

wood → coal → oil → gas

FIG. I.1. Classification of energy resources.

In the early 21st century, the power industry has been developing by a ‘hydrocarbon’ 

scenario specified away back in the last century. In the foreseeable future, such scenario 
assumes, however, high risks for both leading national economies and the global 
economical system. This necessitates the search for protection methods against such risks 
by developing energy-efficient technologies, alternative energy sources, primarily in the 
nuclear power [1-4].

I.1.1. The status of global power industry
Currently, the structure of global energy consumption is as follows: oil — 36% of 

consumed energy resources, coal — 28%, gas — 24%, hydropower — 6%, nuclear power —
6% (Fig. I.2).

The main increment in consumption is generally provided by the economies of Asia
Pacific Region (APR) countries, primarily China. The growth of industrial production and 
social transformations associated with economic development in such thickly inhabited 
countries as China and India provide the effect that the indexes of average energy 
consumption per capita in developing countries rapidly approaches to those of the 
developed countries (Fig. I.3).

FIG. I.2. Evolution from 1971 to 2008 of world total primary energy supply by fuel (Mtoe).

FIG. I.3. Evolution from 1971 to 2008 of world total primary energy supply by region (Mtoe)
(*Asia excludes China, **Includes international aviation and international marine bunkers).

One of the multiple signals that makes one to expect a sharp increase in consumption 

of energy resources in APR countries in the near future is the projected — up to 2030 —
increase of a number of light vehicles, on the average by about 9% in South Asia, while the 
mean value for the whole world being about 2%. Urbanization can be also considered as 
another signal; its rates are indicated by the following figures: if 10% of the global 
population lived in cities in 1900, and in 2007 urban and rural sectors went shares, it is 
expected that approximately 75% of people would live in cities by 2050.

In fast-going industrialization of developing countries, a significant role is played by 

such ‘dirty’ and/or power-intensive sectors as metallurgy, petrochemical, automobile, 
electronics, aviation, paper-and-pulp and other industries. This provides not only the 
growth of hydrocarbon consumption, but also strengthening of negative effect on the 
ecological situation. In particular, the amount of carbon dioxide emissions is increasing, 
which is on the list of greenhouse gases that cause the increase of atmospheric temperature.

The International Energy Agency has formulated a core of the current situation on the 

fossil fuel market as follows: the problem is not in the absence of resources, but in 
providing the access to these resources. As a consequence, it is followed by sharpening of 
the world competition for the rights and conditions of resource access.

The coal reserves and availability are great. If it is used not only in solid phase, the 

timeframes for its potential application go beyond hundreds of years. The main disadvantages 
of coal consist in uneven location of reserves, health risk and hazard to life, and 
environmental contamination during coal mining and using. The coal market is a global 
market with limited supply sources. Thus, 90% of coal is concentrated in China, the United 
States, Russia and Australia.

However, these countries are also facing a number of problems to be solved in the use 

of coal. For example China, the country, the industrial development of which is most 
associated with the availability of coal reserves. By 2010, more than 2 milliard tones of coal 
per year will be mined in China for all industrial needs (more than in all OECD countries). 
China cannot continue to intensively increase the amount of coal transportation due to its 
railway tonnage capacity. Due to the fact that the main coal mining is located in the North, 
while the consumption — south-east, China has to provide its South areas by exporting 
high-quality coal from Australia due to logistics limitations.

The greatest environmental damage is known to be connected with coal consumption, 

which is also associated with the maximum risk for human life — during mining and 
transportation. According to statistical data, the mining of 1 million tons of coal is 
connected with the fatality of 5–10 miners (depending on the technology and industrial 
culture). In China, only according to the official statistics more than 5000 miners died in 
2004.

The situation is more complicated with oil and gas. In using oil resources, things are 

coming to the moment of truth. If the reserves of new oil deposits yearly have exceeded 
annual consumption so far, currently they are equal. Annual world oil production is 
expected to be steadily declined (2–3% per year). By 2040, annual oil output is expected to 
be 50–60% to the level of 2000. In addition, more than 70% of the global oil production 
will fall on Muslim countries. In the United States, the own black gold will be sufficient 
only for about 10–15 years at a current rate of oil production.

The situation with gas is the same, but estimated more optimistically — gas reserves 

would be sufficient for 40–50 years. The following has been changed in the structure of gas 
consumption over the last 30 years: gas — along with oil — was replaced from the industry 
by coal. Its non-electric application and use for transport purposes became widely used.

By comparing the number of consumed and imported oil, gas and coal, the following 

figures can be obtained: 67% of consumed oil, 26% of gas including liquefied natural gas 
and 16% of coal were imported in 2006. In other words, oil, gas and coal are energy 
resources of global, regional and local significance, respectively.

Import and export operations with energy resources maintain the polarization and 

interrelation of production and user countries established in international relations in the 
last century. By comparing the list of regions that are leaders in proved reserves of energy 
resources with the list of regions being the user-leaders, they are seen to be fully 
mismatched. For example, Middle East, Europe, the countries of the former USSR and 
Africa precede by the amount of proved oil reserves, whereas oil is most consumed in the 
countries of APR, North America, Europe including Russia and a number of the former 
Soviet republics. A more vivid picture can be formed in detailing the list: the largest proved 
oil reserves are located in Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq, while the United States, China and 
Japan are taking a lead in the list of oil consumers.

Therefore, the world’s largest economies increasingly depend on the situation in the 

regions supplying considerable part of consumed energy resources (as the suppliers depend 
on the development of these economies). Such interdependence can be demonstrated by the 
United States and China. Oil is supplied to the USA from the Central and South America, 
North and West Africa, from Middle East, Europe. China mainly imports oil from the 
countries of Middle East, Africa, APR, the former USSR.

It is obvious that possible breakdown in supplies for any reason including domestic 

ones is the gravest threat for such large consumers as the United States and China, by 
making the development of their national economy conditional on internal and external
political events in other countries. On the one hand, such risk stimulates the importers to 
create reserves for a rainy day and boosts the rise of prices on energy resources; on the 
other hand, it motivates consuming countries to the diversification of supplies and increase 
of nuclear share and power engineering based on renewable energy sources in the structure 
of national energy consumption. These measures are a part of the activity focused on 
ensuring the energy security, which also supposes the prevention of accidents and terroristic 
attacks against energy facilities, support of investments into its infrastructure, optimization 
of arrangement of markets for all kinds of energy resources in order to avoid the threat of 
reducing energy resources supply at bearable prices.

The positions of energy resource exporters are also vulnerable: the refusal of any 

large consumer from supplies from an exporting country can inflict heavy destruction of its 
economy. Thus, the energy security supposes not only assured access of consumers to 
energy, but also assured entrance to the global market, i.e. the main goal of energy security 
is to ensure the stability of international flows of energy resources.

The issues of energy security become more and more urgent in view of the 

limitedness of global reserves of hydrocarbon energy resources, primarily oil. The further 
exploitation of open-access and long developed oil fields based on state-of-the-art 
technologies will result in reduction of oil production volumes in the near future. Although 
the proved world oil reserves are sufficient to meet the increasing demand for energy 
resources up to the 2030s, substantial investments and introduction of new technologies are 
required to provide more efficient exploitation of readily available deposits and 
development of hard-to-reach fields. In conjunction with political risks in the countries that 
are the largest producers of energy resources, the uncertainty about resource base causes the 
instability of energy markets and international political situation.

The following conclusion can be made from the above about the current state in the 

field of production, consumption and distribution of the world energy resources. Currently, 
the experts suggest more often the anticipation of systemic energy crisis that is evidenced